Lee Carter forecast for historical Bangladesh female data.

<p>Life-table data for year 2003 is designated by green squares. Forecasts based on the constant-hazard assumption and the ΓGM model are denoted by the red and blue curves, corresponding 95% confidence intervals with red and blue shaded areas, respectively.</p

Life expectancy at birth for hunter-gatherer and contemporary populations.

<p>ΓGM was fitted from age 30 onwards. For hunter-gatherers life expectancies based on the Siler model estimated by [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0198485#pone.0198485.ref029" target="_blank">29</a>] is also given.</p

Properties and measures.

<p>Summary of whether shape measures <i>S</i>₁–<i>S</i>₇ satisfy properties <b>P1</b>–<b>P5</b>.</p><p>Properties and measures.</p

Shape values for <i>μ</i>₁ and <i>μ</i>₂.

<p>Shape values assigned to <i>μ</i>₁ and <i>μ</i>₂ by the measures <i>S</i>₁–<i>S</i>₇. Note that the shape values assigned to <i>μ</i>₂ are consistently smaller than the shape values assigned to <i>μ</i>₁, which classify population two as showing weaker aging than population one.</p><p>Shape values for <i>μ</i>₁ and <i>μ</i>₂.</p

Comparison of rankings as provided by the different shape measures.

<p>For the ten populations used in [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0119163#pone.0119163.ref019" target="_blank">19</a>] (HG stands for hunter-gatherers, ChimpW for wild chimpanzees, ChimpC for captive chimpanzees), the ranking of shape values (from lowest to highest value) is similar for all of the shape measures <i>S</i>₁–<i>S</i>₇.</p

Species in pace-shape space.

<p>Pace values (as measured by life expectancy <i>e</i>₀) on the x-axis versus shape values (as measured by <i>S</i>₇) on the y-axis for ten populations taken from [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0119163#pone.0119163.ref019" target="_blank">19</a>] (HG stands for hunter-gatherers, ChimpW for wild chimpanzees, ChimpC for captive chimpanzees).</p

The effect of pace standardization on age-specific hazard can reverse conclusions.

<p>Gompertz mortality <i>μ</i>(<i>x</i>) = <i>ae</i>^0.1<i>x</i> with <i>a</i> = 0.00001 (black line) and <i>a</i> = 0.001 (red line). Left: unstandardized perspective. Right: standardized perspective. The intensity of the colors is proportional to the value of the respective survival function. If the strength of aging is measured by how steeply age-specific hazard increases over life, the unstandardized perspective implies that the population with <i>a</i> = 10⁻³ experiences stronger aging than the population with <i>a</i> = 10⁻⁵; however, if the difference in life span is accounted for, i.e., if the hazard curves are standardized, the conclusion is reversed.</p

Optimal seed size with respect to A and B.

<p>Optimal seed size with respect to A and B.</p

Parent and offspring size notation.

<p>Parent and offspring size notation.</p

Life-Cycle Phases for Semelparous Species.

<p>Life-Cycle Phases for Semelparous Species.</p