The Application of Photoconductive Detectors to the Measurement of X-Ray Production in Laser Produced Plasmas

Photoconductive detectors (PCDs) offer an attractive alternative for the measurement of pulsed x-rays from laser produced plasmas. These devices are fast (FWHM approx.100 ps), sensitive and simple to use. We have used InP, GaAs, and Type IIa diamond as PCDs to measure x-rays emission from 100 eV to 100 keV. Specifically, we have used these detectors to measure total radiation yields, corona temperatures, and hot electron generated x-rays from laser produced plasmas. 5 refs., 4 figs

Ultra high resolution soft x-ray tomography

Ultra high resolution three dimensional images of a microscopic test object were made with soft x-rays using a scanning transmission x-ray microscope. The test object consisted of two different patterns of gold bars on silicon nitride windows that were separated by {approximately}5{mu}m. A series of nine 2-D images of the object were recorded at angles between {minus}50 to +55 degrees with respect to the beam axis. The projections were then combined tomographically to form a 3-D image by means of an algebraic reconstruction technique (ART) algorithm. A transverse resolution of {approximately}1000 {Angstrom} was observed. Artifacts in the reconstruction limited the overall depth resolution to {approximately}6000 {Angstrom}, however some features were clearly reconstructed with a depth resolution of {approximately}1000 {Angstrom}. A specially modified ART algorithm and a constrained conjugate gradient (CCG) code were also developed as improvements over the standard ART algorithm. Both of these methods made significant improvements in the overall depth resolution bringing it down to {approximately}1200 {Angstrom} overall. Preliminary projection data sets were also recorded with both dry and re-hydrated human sperm cells over a similar angular range

X-Ray CT of Highly-Attenuating Objects: 9- or 15- MV Spectra?

We imaged-highly attenuating test objects in three dimensions with 9-MV (at LLNL) and 15-MV (at Hill Air Force Base) x-ray spectra. While we used the same detector and motion control, there were differences that we could not control in the two radiography bays and in the sources. The results show better spatial resolution for the 9-MV spectrum and better contrast for the 15-MV spectrum. The 15-MV data contains a noise pattern that obfuscates the data. It is our judgment that if sufficient attention were given to design of the bay, beam dump, collimation, filtration and linac spot size; a 15-MV imaging system using a flat panel could be developed with spatial resolution of 5 lp/mm and contrastive performance better than we have demonstrated using a 9-MV spectrum

Tomographic scanning microscope for 1-4 KeV x-rays

X-ray microtomography enables three-dimensional imaging at submicron resolution with elemental and chemical state contrast. The 1-4 KeV energy region is promising for microtomography of biological, microelectronics, and materials sciences specimens. To capitalize on this potential, we are constructing a tomographic scanning x-ray microscope for 1-4 KeV x-ray on a spherical grating monochromator beamline at the Advance Photon Source. The microscope, which uses zone plate optics, has an anticipated spatial resolution of 100 nm and an energy resolution of better than 1 eV

A Proposal for High-resolution X-ray Imaging of Intermodal Cargo Containers for Fissionable Materials

The sensitivity for identification of high-Z objects in elemental form in the massive cargo of intermodal containers with continuous bremsstrahlung radiation depends critically on discriminating the weak signal from uncollided photons from the very intense flux of scattered radiations that penetrate the cargo. We propose that this might be accomplished by rejection of detected events with E {le} 2-3 MeV that contain the majority of multiply-scattered photons along with a correction for single-scattered photons at higher energies. Monte Carlo simulations of radiographs with a 9-MeV bremsstrahlung spectrum demonstrate that rejection of detected events with E {le} 3 MeV removes the majority of signals from scattered photons emerging through cargo with Z {le} 30 and areal densities of at least 145 g cm{sup -2}. With analytical estimates of the single-scattered intensity at higher energies, accurate estimates of linear attenuation coefficients for shielded and unshielded uranium spheres with masses as small as 0.08 kg are found. The estimated maximum dose is generally so low that reasonable order tomography of interesting portions of a container should be possible

Fast Gate: Subnanosecond Gate Detectors for Laser Radiography

X-ray radiography is used as a principal diagnostic in a wide range of hydrodynamic tests relevant to the weapons program and also for basic materials and equation-of-state science studies. The quality of the x-ray radiograph can be significantly degraded by the scattering of x-rays within the object and by components of the test system itself. Elimination of these scattered x-rays from the recorded images can either substantially improve the image contrast and signal-to-noise or allow smaller, lower-cost x-ray sources to be used. The scattered x-rays could be minimized through the use of a much shorter-duration x-ray pulse and a fast, gated detector. The short duration x-ray pulse and the fast gated detector allow detection of only those x-rays which pass through the object being radiographed. X-rays which are the result of scattering have longer path lengths and take longer to reach the target. Most of these can be eliminated if the detector if gated off before they arrive at the detector. Until recently there were no sources of high energy x-rays (1-10 MeV) with short duration (sub 100 picosecond) pulses. Now the Petawatt Laser Facility (ref 1) at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory has been able to produce 0.1 rads at 1 meter of MeV energy x-rays in 1-0 picoseconds. Efforts are underway to significantly increase this x-ray output. The combination of the existing short-duration, Petawatt-produced x-ray pulses and an x-ray detector with sub-100-ps gate times could eliminate most of the scattered x-rays from the radiograph image and allow highly improved radiography particularly for larger, high density test objects

Genome-to-genome analysis highlights the effect of the human innate and adaptive immune systems on the hepatitis C virus

Outcomes of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and treatment depend on viral and host genetic factors. Here we use human genome-wide genotyping arrays and new whole-genome HCV viral sequencing technologies to perform a systematic genome-to-genome study of 542 individuals who were chronically infected with HCV, predominantly genotype 3. We show that both alleles of genes encoding human leukocyte antigen molecules and genes encoding components of the interferon lambda innate immune system drive viral polymorphism. Additionally, we show that IFNL4 genotypes determine HCV viral load through a mechanism dependent on a specific amino acid residue in the HCV NS5A protein. These findings highlight the interplay between the innate immune system and the viral genome in HCV control

Electron Density Measurement of a Colliding Plasma Using Soft X-Ray Laser Interferometry

The understanding of the collision and subsequent interaction of counter-streaming high-density plasmas is important for the design of indirectly-driven inertial confinement fusion (ICF) hohlraums. We have employed a soft x-ray Mach-Zehnder interferometer, using a Ne- like Y x-ray laser at 155 {angstrom} as the probe source, to study interpenetration and stagnation of two colliding plasmas. We observed a peaked density profile at the symmetry axis with a wide stagnation region with width of order 100 {mu}m. We compare the measured density profile with density profiles calculated by the radiation hydrodynamic code LASNEX and a multi-specie fluid code which allows for interpenetration. The measured density profile falls in between the calculated profiles using collisionless and fluid approximations. By using different target materials and irradiation configurations, we can vary the collisionality of the plasma. We hope to use the soft x-ray laser interferometry as a mechanism to validate and benchmark our numerical codes used for the design and analysis of high-energy- density physics experiments

Whole genome sequencing and de novo assembly identifies Sydney-like variant noroviruses and recombinants during the winter 2012/2013 outbreak in England

Background: Norovirus is the commonest cause of epidemic gastroenteritis among people of all ages. Outbreaks frequently occur in hospitals and the community, costing the UK an estimated £110 m per annum. An evolutionary explanation for periodic increases in norovirus cases, despite some host-specific post immunity is currently limited to the identification of obvious recombinants. Our understanding could be significantly enhanced by full length genome sequences for large numbers of intensively sampled viruses, which would also assist control and vaccine design. Our objective is to develop rapid, high-throughput, end-to-end methods yielding complete norovirus genome sequences. We apply these methods to recent English outbreaks, placing them in the wider context of the international norovirus epidemic of winter 2012. Method. Norovirus sequences were generated from 28 unique clinical samples by Illumina RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) of total faecal RNA. A range of de novo sequence assemblers were attempted. The best assembler was identified by validation against three replicate samples and two norovirus qPCR negative samples, together with an additional 20 sequences determined by PCR and fractional capillary sequencing. Phylogenetic methods were used to reconstruct evolutionary relationships from the whole genome sequences. Results: Full length norovirus genomes were generated from 23/28 samples. 5/28 partial norovirus genomes were associated with low viral copy numbers. The de novo assembled sequences differed from sequences determined by capillary sequencing by <0.003%. Intra-host nucleotide sequence diversity was rare, but detectable by mapping short sequence reads onto its de novo assembled consensus. Genomes similar to the Sydney 2012 strain caused 78% (18/23) of cases, consistent with its previously documented association with the winter 2012 global outbreak. Interestingly, phylogenetic analysis and recombination detection analysis of the consensus sequences identified two related viruses as recombinants, containing sequences in prior circulation to Sydney 2012 in open reading frame (ORF) 2. Conclusion: Our approach facilitates the rapid determination of complete norovirus genomes. This method provides high resolution of full norovirus genomes which, when coupled with detailed epidemiology, may improve the understanding of evolution and control of this important healthcare-associated pathogen

Interferon lambda 4 impacts the genetic diversity of hepatitis C virus

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a highly variable pathogen that frequently establishes chronic infection. This genetic variability is affected by the adaptive immune response but the contribution of other host factors is unclear. Here, we examined the role played by interferon lambda-4 (IFN-λ4) on HCV diversity; IFN-λ4 plays a crucial role in spontaneous clearance or establishment of chronicity following acute infection. We performed viral genome-wide association studies using human and viral data from 485 patients of white ancestry infected with HCV genotype 3a. We demonstrate that combinations of host genetic variants, which determine IFN-λ4 protein production and activity, influence amino acid variation across the viral polyprotein - not restricted to specific viral proteins or HLA restricted epitopes - and modulate viral load. We also observed an association with viral di-nucleotide proportions. These results support a direct role for IFN-λ4 in exerting selective pressure across the viral genome, possibly by a novel mechanism