Pupillary images before and after electrical stimulation of the ciliary nerve (Cat #2 right eye).

<p>A: Before stimulation. B: Maximum dilation when the lateral branch of the short ciliary nerve was stimulated. C: Maximum dilation when medial branch was stimulated. D: Maximum dilation when both side of branch was simultaneously stimulated. Solid line: Detected contour of the pupil. X: The center of the pupil that is represented as the center of gravity that was calculated from contour data.</p

Photograph of the compact wavefront aberrometer attached to a flex holder arm.

<p>Photograph of the compact wavefront aberrometer attached to a flex holder arm.</p

Images of the fundus of the eye of a cat showing reflectance changes in response to transcorneal electrical stimulation (TES).

<p>The reflectance changes appeared on the optic disc (OD) and over the retinal blood vessels after the TES. The reflectance changes began about 2.0 s after the onset of stimulation (4.0 s after the onset of recording), and the intensity of the reflectance change increased for 7.0 s after the onset of the recording. It then gradually decreased for 12.0 s. The top left is a fundus photograph of the left eye.</p

Reflectance changes at 1° temporal from the fovea.

<p>The dark gray lines indicate the reflectance changes at 1° temporal from the fovea. The black line shows the low-pass filtered data at 0.008-Hz. The dotted line indicates the baseline. The light gray zone indicates the period of light stimulation. Cone reflectances increased during light stimulation and had two peaks in all subjects. Subject 2 underwent the repeatability experiments (S2 #1 and S2 #2).</p

Peak time and change of cone reflectance (ΔI).

<p>Peak time and change of cone reflectance (ΔI).</p

Maximum amplitude of accommodation as a function of the frequency (A) or current (B) of the stimulus.

<p>A: The frequency was varied and the current was fixed at 1 mA. B: The current was varied and the frequency was fixed at 40 Hz. One or 2 drops of phenylephrine hydrochloride was instilled prior to the measurements. The maximum amplitude of accommodation is the average of four eyes of four cats (Cat #2, #4, #6, #7). Error bars indicates standard deviations. Monophasic square pulses at a fixed pulse width of 0.5 ms were applied to the lateral, medial, or both branches of the short ciliary nerve.</p

Color map diagram of Zernike polynomials up to the 4th order.

<p>Astig 45, oblique astigmatism (45 deg); Astig 0, with-the-rule astigmatism (0 deg); Trefoil 0, vertical trefoil aberration (0 deg); Trefoil 30, oblique trefoil aberration (30 deg); Sphere, spherical aberration.</p

Images of reflectance changes elicited by TES (A) and by photic stimulation (B).

<p>The reflectance changes on the OD and over the retinal blood vessels decreased after TES (A), while reflectance changes evoked by light stimulation appeared at the light-stimulated retinal area, the retinal vessels, and OD (B). Plot of the time course of the reflectance changes evoked by TES (C) and light stimulation (D). The latency of the light stimulated retina (D) was shorter than that after TES (C), but the implicit time of the response was same. The time to return to the baseline in the light stimulated retina (D) was significantly later than that after TES (C).</p

Schematic diagram of experimental setup.

<p>ON, optic nerve; SC_L, lateral branch of the short ciliary nerve; SC_M, medial branch of the short ciliary nerve. CMOS1, complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor for Shack-Hartmann spot image; CMOS2, CMOS image sensor for anterior eye (pupil) image.</p

Effect of stimulus pulse duration on reflectance changes.

<p>Fundus photograph (A) and images of reflectance changes elicited by different pulse durations (B–F). The GSV of the reflectance changes (dark signal) decreases as the pulse duration increases (G). The relative reflectance changes increases as the pulse durations increase (H). The relative reflectance changes increases almost linearly with an increase of the pulse duration from 0.5 to 10.0 ms/phase (G). There is a significant positive correlation between the relative reflectance changes and pulse durations (r² = 0.432, <i>P</i><1×10⁻⁴). Plot of the relationship between the latency and pulse duration (H). The latency decreases as the pulse duration increases, but the time to return to the baseline increases as the pulse duration increases. The latency is significantly correlated with the pulse duration (r² = 0.171, <i>P</i> = 0.009), and the time to return to baseline was significantly correlated with the pulse durations (r² = 0.246, <i>P</i> = 0.001) (l).</p