The future is a zero-carbon building sector: Perspectives from Durban, South Africa

The built environment is a critical part of the climate change problem in cities, and urban buildings can act as a scaled response to mitigating anthropogenic climate change. Buildings last for well beyond a hundred years and thus have the potential to provide cities with a healthier and safer environment for urban dwellers well into the future. The role of the building sector toward reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is now better understood, and has resulted in various initiatives globally to move toward being a net-zero carbon sector. The objective of this study was to provide an assessment of the costs in achieving the emissions-reduction potential for each high-emitting sector in the eThekwini Municipality (KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) through the determination of a marginal abatement cost curve (MACC). The MACC was developed for 2030, 2040, and 2050 across key sectors and aligned with the approach used by the eThekwini Municipality by employing the GHG Protocol’s BASIC level of reporting that excludes the Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land-use (AFLOU) and Industrial Processes and Product Use (IPPU) sectors. We found that the building sector offers the lowest cost to mitigate each tonne of GHGs when compared to other sectors in the eThekwini Municipality. Several interventions within the building sector further display positive payback periods throughout its life cycle. The MACC produced in this study is the first of its kind for any municipality in South Africa and will provide insights into the net cost of interventions that would mitigate a tonne of carbon emissions.  Significance: The MACC produced in this study is the first of its kind for any municipality in South Africa. Developing a MACC adds to an important basket of factors that need to be considered when planning for future climates in cities and is of benefit in prioritising actions in addressing climate change. The MACC in this study demonstrates that energy efficiency interventions in the building sector offer substantial mitigation potential within the most feasible payback periods when compared to other sectors. The MACC may be replicated by other municipalities, to support the prioritisation of actions needed to address climate change

Vertical distribution of tropospheric ozone over Cairo, Egypt.

Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2006.Cairo is a key location that is situated on the southern and eastern boundaries of the Mediterranean Basin, where summer tropospheric ozone levels are known to be elevated as a result of the persistence of a semi-stationary anticyclone that favours northerly flow from Europe, where anthropogenic emissions of ozone precursor gases are high. Strong levels of insolation, the absence of wet removal mechanisms, and low deposition velocities over the Mediterranean Sea further promote the summer enhancement of ozone. Ozone profiles at Cairo, recorded by MOZAIC (Measurement of OZone and wAter Vapor aboard In-service AirCraft) aircraft, were examined with a view to assessing the relative influence of a range of factors on the vertical distribution of tropospheric ozone. These included long-range transport of ozone and precursor gases from Europe, North America and Asia, assessed through back trajectory analysis with the aid of the HYSPLIT (Hybrid Single Particle Integrated Trajectory) modelling programme. The influence of local pollution sources was determined using local pollution monitoring data, satellite measurements of nitrogen dioxides (N02) and MOZAIC carbon monoxide (CO) data. Results show that lower and mid-tropospheric ozone values at Cairo are enhanced in summer relative to other seasons, with high upper tropospheric values occurring in February and April. The upper tropospheric variability is attributed to stratospheric intrusions during the movement of the tropopause which is consistent with the known springtime enhancement due to stratospheric-tropospheric exchange (STE). The lower tropospheric summer enhancement is linked to the effects of local pollution and polluted air masses originating from Europe. This summer ozone enhancement extends to a height of 8 km, which is fairly unusual for the region. The mid-tropospheric ozone enhancement appears to be a unique feature observed over Cairo, as other Mediterranean cities such as Athens, Greece usually display peaks in the upper and lower troposphere only. Therefore this enhancement is of considerable interest as it is unique to the region. iii In the mid-troposphere mean ozone values in summer (JJA) range between 70-80 ppbv, with values approaching 100 ppbv on individual days. Investigations into the probable causes of this enhancement suggest that the enhanced ozone is not created in the midtroposphere due to low levels of ozone precursor gases occurring in the mid-troposphere. Further, convective uplift of near-surface ozone is unlikely to occur as local pollution is confined to below 1000 hPa. It is therefore suggested that the enhanced ozone in the midtroposphere is being brought into the region by the long-range of polluted air masses from distant sources. Hierarchical classification of ozone profiles using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS version 11, 2001) programme allowed for the determination of least and most polluted profiles to emerge, which when related to air mass origins, highlights the significant role of long-range transport to mid-tropospheric ozone summer enhancement

The integration of climate change considerations into local air quality management plans in South Africa.

Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2011.In recent years there has been considerable advancement in our scientific understanding of the linkages and interactions between climate change and air quality. A warmer, evolving climate is likely to have severe consequences for air quality due to impacts on pollution sources and meteorology. The issues of poor air quality and anthropogenic induced climate change further share common sources of pollutants and thus options for control. The possibility to include these complex linkages to climate change in South Africa’s air quality policy, the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (Act No.39 of 2004) (the AQA), includes the use of local air quality management plans (AQMPs). The extent to which South African cities are currently incorporating climate change concerns into existing AQMPs and the opportunities for improved integration of these two issues was investigated using the eThekwini Municipality or the city of Durban as a case study. Climate change and air quality issues are currently dealt with separately in Durban, overlooking an opportunity to derive multiple benefits from integrative policies. This case study primarily focused on understanding the role that the AQMP could play in support of creating a low carbon resilient city through its influence on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Emission inventories focusing on both air pollutants and GHG emissions were developed for two of the areas for intervention prioritised in Durban’s AQMP, namely the road transportation and industrial sectors. The emissions inventories were used as a basis to explore air pollution interventions that are likely to result in trade-offs or synergies (or co-benefits) for GHG mitigation. For the industrial sector it was found that the implementation of industrial energy efficiency and fuel switching measures would be favourable for co-benefits. In the case of road transport, reducing the vehicle kilometres travelled by privately owned motor vehicles and improving the efficiency of road freight transport offers the greatest potential for achieving co-benefits. The case study further illustrates that in the short-to medium-term air quality management (AQM) planning may help to promote climate change awareness and action toward climate change mitigation through improved co-ordination of industrial, energy and transport plans. The introduction of voluntary programmes, municipal by-laws and or regulatory guidance from the AQA, that support strategies with co-benefits is critical to ensure that local AQMPs can be used to promote reductions or avoidance of GHG emissions. In the long-term, climate change impacts on meteorological factors that influence air quality also need to be considered in AQMPs so that the most effective interventions can be selected to support the local government’s climate change adaptation goals

Implementation of water energy food-health nexus in a climate constrained world: a review for South Africa

In recent years, the Water-Energy-Food (WEF) nexus has gained significant attention in global research. Spatial inequality in water-energy-food security (WEF) and its impact on public health and how this is affected by climate change remains a grand adaptation challenge. South Africa is extremely vulnerable and exposed to the impacts of climate change due to its socio-economic and environmental context. While alternative nexus types have garnered interest, this paper pioneers an extension of the conventional WEF framework to encompass health, giving rise to the Water-Energy-Food-Health (WEF-H) nexus. Despite a plethora of WEF nexus studies focused on South Africa, a substantial knowledge gap persists due to the lack of a comprehensive overview of the enablers and barriers to realizing the WEF-H nexus. South Africa boasts diverse policies related to water, energy, food, and health; however, their alignment remains an ongoing challenge. This study seeks to bridge this critical gap by conducting an exhaustive review of existing literature. Its primary aim is to delve into the intricate mechanisms that either facilitate or impede the actualization of the WEF-H nexus in South Africa. By synthesizing insights from a wide array of literature sources, this research strives to illuminate the challenges and opportunities stemming from the integration of health considerations into the established WEF nexus framework. This exploration holds immense significance, not only for unraveling the multifaceted interactions between these pivotal sectors but also for guiding policy development and decision-making processes in South Africa towards a more holistic and sustainable approach to resource management

A review of scientifc linkages and interactions between climate change and air quality, with implications for air quality management in South Africa

In recent years there has been considerable advancement in our scientifc understanding of the linkages and interactions between climate change and air quality. A warmer, evolving climate is likely to have severe consequences for air quality due to impacts on pollution sources and meteorology. Climate-induced changes to sources of tropospheric ozone precursor gases and to atmospheric circulation are likely to lead to changes in both the concentration and dispersion of near-surface ozone that could act to offset improvements in air quality. The control of air pollutants through air quality management is also likely to impact on climate change, with reductions in ozone, particulate matter and sulphur dioxide being of particular interest. The improved understanding of the relationship between air quality and climate change provides a scientific basis for policy interventions. After a review of the scientific linkages, the potential to include climate change considerations in air quality management planning processes in South Africa was examined

The future is a zero-carbon building sector: Perspectives from Durban, South Africa

The built environment is a critical part of the climate change problem in cities, and urban buildings can act as a scaled response to mitigating anthropogenic climate change. Buildings last for well beyond a hundred years and thus have the potential to provide cities with a healthier and safer environment for urban dwellers well into the future. The role of the building sector toward reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is now better understood, and has resulted in various initiatives globally to move toward being a net-zero carbon sector. The objective of this study was to provide an assessment of the costs in achieving the emissions-reduction potential for each high-emitting sector in the eThekwini Municipality (KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) through the determination of a marginal abatement cost curve (MACC). The MACC was developed for 2030, 2040, and 2050 across key sectors and aligned with the approach used by the eThekwini Municipality by employing the GHG Protocol’s BASIC level of reporting that excludes the Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land-use (AFLOU) and Industrial Processes and Product Use (IPPU) sectors. We found that the building sector offers the lowest cost to mitigate each tonne of GHGs when compared to other sectors in the eThekwini Municipality. Several interventions within the building sector further display positive payback periods throughout its life cycle. The MACC produced in this study is the first of its kind for any municipality in South Africa and will provide insights into the net cost of interventions that would mitigate a tonne of carbon emissions. Significance: The MACC produced in this study is the first of its kind for any municipality in South Africa. Developing a MACC adds to an important basket of factors that need to be considered when planning for future climates in cities and is of benefit in prioritising actions in addressing climate change. The MACC in this study demonstrates that energy efficiency interventions in the building sector offer substantial mitigation potential within the most feasible payback periods when compared to other sectors. The MACC may be replicated by other municipalities, to support the prioritisation of actions needed to address climate change

Air quality and climate change co-benefits for the industrial sector in Durban, South Africa

Industries in Durban, South Africa, are a major source of air pollutant emissions and large users of fossil fuel based energy. Durban's energy strategy prioritises energy efficiency at industries as a key action, whilst industries are also the focus of the city's air quality management plan (AQMP). In this paper, measures that have been introduced in industries in Durban to effect air quality improvements and reduce energy consumption are examined in terms of their respective impacts on greenhouse gas (GHG) and air pollutant emissions. It was found that co-benefits for GHG mitigation were achieved when petroleum refineries switched from using heavy fuel oil to refinery gas and methane rich gas. Within other industries, co-benefits for air quality stemmed from reducing fossil fuel energy consumption and the improved efficiency of combustion systems. Air quality and energy policies in the city are being executed independently, without consideration of the trade-offs or synergies of the interventions being implemented. Recommendations are made for authorities and industries to consider the co-benefits for GHG mitigation in their AQMPs and where these are not possible to consider offsetting the increased GHG emissions through improved alignment with energy strategies.Industrial sector Air quality management Energy consumption

A review of scientifc linkages and interactions between climate change and air quality, with implications for air quality management in South Africa

In recent years there has been considerable advancement in our scientifc understanding of the linkages and interactions between climate change and air quality. A warmer, evolving climate is likely to have severe consequences for air quality due to impacts on pollution sources and meteorology. Climate-induced changes to sources of tropospheric ozone precursor gases and to atmospheric circulation are likely to lead to changes in both the concentration and dispersion of near-surface ozone that could act to offset improvements in air quality. The control of air pollutants through air quality management is also likely to impact on climate change, with reductions in ozone, particulate matter and sulphur dioxide being of particular interest. The improved understanding of the relationship between air quality and climate change provides a scientific basis for policy interventions. After a review of the scientific linkages, the potential to include climate change considerations in air quality management planning processes in South Africa was examined