Economy-wide impacts of REDD when there is political influence

National-level strategies for reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD), financed by international transfers, have begun to emerge. A three-sector model is developed to explore the economy-wide effects of two policies implemented by a government participating in REDD that differ in how they bring together incentives and benefit sharing: an incentive payment scheme where these are intrinsically linked and taxes where they are separated. Two sectors utilise forest as an input to production, one in which forest is substitutable for labour, producing a carbon externality, and one in which forest and labour are complements and where forest is used sustainably. Two important effects determine model outcomes. First, the government factors in general equilibrium effects when determining the efficient payment level. This implies that the level of international transfers is not fully passed through to the forest-using sectors. Second, even though the sustainable sector receives no incentive payment it can increase in size through the effect of REDD payments on markets. With political influence, where incentives and benefit sharing are linked the forest-using sectors may lobby for lower payment rates for themselves in order to create a larger international transfer. Where there is a separation between incentives and benefit-sharing this effect disappears. The findings indicate that REDD may be less cost-effective than envisioned at the international level

Understanding the demand for REDD+ credits

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forestdegradation (REDD+) has emerged as a potentially important component of the global policy mix to mitigate climate change. Against a background of increasing engagement between private sector entities and conservation organizations, private sector investment has emerged in REDD+. Despite slow developments at the international scale, there continues to be private sector interest in REDD+and continued voluntary investments in REDD+ projects and initiatives. In order to better understand possible models for private sector engagement in REDD+, this study analysed the motivation of private sector stakeholders toengage in REDD+, the perception of the potential of REDD+, the critical obstacles to making REDD+ functional and how actors perceive themselves as part of future REDD+ scenarios. Based on interviews and a workshop with private sector actors, this study found that few expect a regulatory market for REDD+ to emerge and that credits from the voluntary market have to be tailored to specific needs. As a carbon offset, REDD+ provides insufficient motivation for investment, particularly if cheaper alternatives exist. Co-benefits such as biodiversity conservation and community development are more important when traditional corporate social responsibility motivations play a role. Project scale remains important not only for the fact that smaller projects are viewed as offering more visible benefits to stakeholders but also as a means of having more control over risks on the ground, posing a challenge for the design of jurisdictional REDD+. Moving towards supply chains that are free from deforestation offers an opportunity to tackle commodity-driven deforestation. While questions remain about how such an approach might be integrated into REDD+, it could help address a perceived gap between private sector understanding of the values of REDD+ and the risks associated with these values not arising - termed here as a ‘missingmiddle'

Assessing the impact of institutional conditions upon REDD+

This thesis investigates the role that institutional conditions have on policy for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) by applying a New Institutional Economics perspective and a multimethodological approach. It focuses on three specific institutional conditions: property rights, governance and politics, and applies theoretical and empirical techniques. A single case study of Guyana’s innovative REDD+ programme is used for empirical analysis. The thesis provides contributions to normative and evaluative REDD+ literature, especially with regard to early assessments of the design, impacts and effectiveness of national-level REDD+. It makes subsidiary contributions in the areas of small-scale mining, policy design under political influence and environmental governance. Through analytical modelling the thesis finds that design of REDD+ is significantly altered when placed in a general equilibrium setting, along with when political influence is included. Econometric analysis of a unique data-set from Guyana shows effects from electoral cycles on the holding of property rights relating to the main driver of deforestation, mining, along with the introduction of REDD+. Qualitative analysis of interviews and media sources highlight that governance of REDD+ in Guyana has remained predominantly state-centric, with only some evidence that multi-actor, multilevel governance has emerged. Issues such as capacity, political will, electioneering, the retained control of finance by donors and the introduction of complicated systems of safeguards have all affected the emergence of ‘pure’ REDD+ in Guyana. The thesis provides key conclusions on the importance of a cognisance of the institutional landscape on which REDD+ is to be implemented. Including such an institutional perspective raises questions over the perceived cheapness of REDD+ as a mitigation option. It offers guidance for the design and implementation of national level REDD+ policy and highlights the need for a differentiated approach to REDD+, factoring in the relevant institutional conditions prevalent in each jurisdiction

Rights to the forest, REDD+ and elections: Mining in Guyana

This paper examines the impact of electoral cycles and the introduction of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+) policy upon the holding of small-scale mining property rights in Guyana. Mining is both the major cause of deforestation and the main economic activity in the country. A simple model of the incentives to hold mining property rights is developed and tested using a unique data-set of small-scale mining property rights data. Econometric techniques are used to test the findings of the model, concluding that the number of mining rights issued fall after election years, with the number rescinded rising. The introduction of REDD+ in Guyana also seems to have increased the number of mining claims being relinquished, and reduce the number being issued. The findings highlight the importance of political economy events in the evolution of small-scale mining activity, and show some evidence that the introduction of a REDD+ framework in Guyana has impacted the main driver of deforestation, despite the absence of specific policy targeting the sector

Trends in missed presentations and late HIV diagnosis in a UK teaching hospital: a retrospective comparative cohort study

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Late diagnosis is an important cause of HIV-related morbidity, mortality and healthcare costs in the UK and undiagnosed infection limits efforts to reduce transmission. National guidelines provide recommendations to increase HIV testing in all healthcare settings. We evaluated progress towards these recommendations by comparing missed opportunities for HIV testing and late diagnosis in two six year cohorts from North East Scotland.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>We reviewed diagnostic pathways of all patients newly diagnosed with HIV referred to infectious diseases and genito-urinary medicine services between 1995 and 2000 (n = 48) and 2004 to 2009 (n = 117). Missed presentations (failure to diagnose ≤ 1 month of a clinical or non-clinical indicator for testing), late diagnosis (CD4 < 350 cells/mm³), and time to diagnosis (months from first presentation to diagnosis) were compared between cohorts using <it>χ</it>²and log-rank tests. Determinants of missed presentation were explored by multivariate logistic regression. Breslow-Day tests assessed change in diagnostic performance by patient subgroup.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>There were significant decreases in missed presentations (33% to 17%; <it>P </it>= 0.02) and time to diagnosis (mean 17 months to 4 months; <it>P </it>= 0.005) but not in late diagnosis (56% vs. 60%; <it>P </it>= 0.57) between earlier and later cohorts. In the later cohort patients were significantly more likely to have acquired HIV abroad and presented with early HIV disease, and testing was more likely to be indicated by transmission risk or contact with GUM services than by clinical presentation. Missed presentation remained significantly less likely in the later cohort (OR = 0.28, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.72; <it>P </it>= 0.008) after adjustment for age, transmission risks and number of clinical indicators. Reductions in missed presentation were greater in patients < 40 years, of non-UK origin, living in least deprived neighbourhoods and with early disease at presentation (<it>P </it>< 0.05). 27% of missed presentations occurred in primary care and 46% in general secondary care.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>While early diagnosis has improved in epidemiological risk groups, clinical indications for HIV testing continue to be missed, particularly in patients who are older, of UK origin and from more deprived communities. Increasing testing in non-specialist services is a priority.</p

Environmental improvement initiatives in the coal mining industry: maximisation of the triple bottom line

Mining is an economically important industry, which faces several environmental and social challenges. Other than operational improvement activities, mining companies are increasingly paying attention to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) and maximise social welfare to satisfy multiple stakeholders and the rise of corporate social responsible initiatives. Based on a case study analysis of coal mining companies we develop a triple bottom line (TBL) initiatives framework that provides a starting point for mining companies to develop a strategic approach to environmental improvement initiatives that can positively impact all elements of the TBL. We highlight four types of process and offset-based initiatives that are available to mining companies to reduce their GHGs, each having differential effects on elements of the TBL. Our findings suggest the importance of company-wide strategies of looking at initiatives through all rather than individual elements of the TBL. Such a strategy would provide an appropriate estimate of the costs and benefits of the initiatives and results in a balanced approach that takes care of operational improvement, reduces GHGs and improves the social welfare of people engaged in mining operations and wider society

Gold mining, indigenous land claims and conflict in Guyana's hinterland

In recent decades, Guyana’s gold-rich interior has been the location of numerous, mostly low-latent, conflicts. In each case, groups of Afro and Indo-Guyanese originating from the country’s coastal cities and towns – popularly referred to as ‘Coast Landers’ – have clashed with indigenous Amerindians over control of remote parcels of land containing gold deposits. Each appears to have a valid argument in support of its position: the former contend that they are legally entitled to work these lands, having obtained the requisite permits from the central government to mine for gold, whilst the latter maintain that such decisions constitute a breach of their human rights, and draw attention to key legislation in support of their case. This article broadens understanding of the dynamics of these conflicts by reflecting more critically on the arguments presented by both parties. Drawing heavily on research conducted in Mahdia-Campbelltown, one location where frictions between Coast Lander mining groups and Amerindians are particularly serious, it is argued that these disputes are not about control of gold riches as is popularly believed but rather a product of deeply-rooted ethnic tensions between these parties

Policy Stability in Climate Governance: The Case of the United Kingdom

‘Super-wicked' problems such as climate change require ambitious policies within stable policy frameworks. Key for policy stability is to disincentivise future reversals to carbon-intensive lifestyles resulting in unstoppable climate change. It requires lock-in into a low-carbon development trajectory, increasing popular support and needs to be self-reinforcing with reversal costs rising over time as benefits increase. In parliamentary political systems (e.g. UK), policies emerge more easily but are more difficult to maintain given that shifting political majorities can result in policy U-turns, resulting in uncertainties for investment in low-carbon transitions. We examine what factors determine policy stability in UK Climate Change Policy aiming to reduce CO2 emissions by 85-90% by 2050. Policy stability depends on favourable public opinion and the political system. In the case of parliamentary democracies the extent to which it is embedded into a multilevel governance institutional framework and political cross-party consensus is particularly important for policy stability

Intractable Hiccups and a Posterior Fossa Arteriovenous Malformation: A Case Report

A 29-year-old man is presented who developed intractable hiccups following a subarachnoid hemorrhage from a posterior fossa dural arteriovenous malformation (AVM). The hiccups persisted even after various treatments had been attempted, and the AVM had been excised surgically. The hiccups stopped after a bilateral phrenic nerve section was performed. This report reviews the central causes and mechanisms of hiccups and emphasizes the importance of selective vertebral angiography in demonstrating posterior fossa AVM