Characterization of a Quadrotor Unmanned Aircraft System for Aerosol-Particle-Concentration Measurements

High-spatial-resolution, near-surface vertical profiling of atmospheric chemical composition is currently limited by the availability of experimental platforms that can sample in constrained environments. As a result, measurements of near-surface gradients in trace gas and aerosol particle concentrations have been limited to studies conducted from fixed location towers or tethered balloons. Here, we explore the utility of a quadrotor unmanned aircraft system (UAS) as a sampling platform to measure vertical and horizontal concentration gradients of trace gases and aerosol particles at high spatial resolution (1 m) within the mixed layer (0–100 m). A 3D Robotics Iris+ autonomous quadrotor UAS was outfitted with a sensor package consisting of a two-channel aerosol optical particle counter and a CO₂ sensor. The UAS demonstrated high precision in both vertical (±0.5 m) and horizontal positions (±1 m), highlighting the potential utility of quadrotor UAS drones for aerosol- and trace-gas measurements within complex terrain, such as the urban environment, forest canopies, and above difficult-to-access areas such as breaking surf. Vertical profiles of aerosol particle number concentrations, acquired from flights conducted along the California coastline, were used to constrain sea-spray aerosol-emission rates from coastal wave breaking

Control of Interfacial Cl₂ and N₂O₅ Reactivity by a Zwitterionic Phospholipid in Comparison with Ionic and Uncharged Surfactants

Gas–liquid scattering experiments reveal that charge-separated but neutral (zwitterionic) surfactants catalyze the oxidation of dissolved Br^– to Br₂ by gaseous Cl₂ at the surface of a 0.3 M NaBr/glycerol solution. Solutions of NaBr dissolved in glycerol with no surfactant were compared with solutions coated with zwitterionic, cationic, and anionic surfactants at dilute surface concentrations of 1.1 to 1.5 × 10¹⁴ cm^–2 (less than 65% of maximum chain packing). The zwitterionic phospholipid enhances Cl₂ conversion of Br^– to Br₂ by a factor of 1.61 ± 0.15, in comparison with a 14-fold enhancement by a cationic surfactant (tetrahexylammonium) and a five-fold suppression by an anionic surfactant (dodecyl sulfate). Further studies indicate that even an uncharged surfactant, monododecanoylglycerol, enhances Cl₂ → Br₂ production. Similar behavior is observed for the oxidation of Br^– to Br₂ by N₂O₅; it is just slightly suppressed by the phospholipid and strongly enhanced by the cationic surfactant. Collectively, these results suggest that attractions and repulsions between the negative Br^– ions and the positive and negative charges of the surfactant headgroups draw Br^– ions to the surface or repel them away. At low coverages, ion-induced dipole and dispersion interactions between the CH₂ groups and Br^– or Cl₂ may also enhance reactivity. These results demonstrate that the hydrocarbon chains of loosely packed surfactants do not necessarily block gas–liquid reactions but that positively charged, and even uncharged, groups can instead facilitate reactions by bringing gas-phase and solution-phase reagents together in the interfacial region

Volatility of Primary Organic Aerosol Emitted from Light Duty Gasoline Vehicles

Primary organic aerosol (POA) emitted from light duty gasoline vehicles (LDGVs) exhibits a semivolatile behavior in which heating the aerosol and/or diluting the aerosol leads to partial evaporation of the POA. A single volatility distribution can explain the median evaporation behavior of POA emitted from LDGVs but this approach is unable to capture the full range of measured POA volatility during thermodenuder (TD) experiments conducted at atmospherically relevant concentrations (2–5 μg m^–3). Reanalysis of published TD data combined with analysis of new measurements suggest that POA emitted from gasoline vehicles is composed of two types of POA that have distinctly different volatility distributions: one low-volatility distribution and one medium-volatility distribution. These correspond to fuel combustion-derived POA and motor oil POA, respectively. Models that simultaneously incorporate both of these distributions are able to reproduce experimental results much better (<i>R</i>² = 0.94) than models that use a single average or median distribution (<i>R</i>² = 0.52). These results indicate that some fraction of POA emitted from LDGVs is essentially nonvolatile under typical atmospheric dilution levels. Roughly 50% of the vehicles tested in the current study had POA emissions dominated by fuel combustion products (essentially nonvolatile). Further testing is required to determine appropriate fleet-average emissions rates of the two POA types from LDGVs

Size-Resolved Sea Spray Aerosol Particles Studied by Vibrational Sum Frequency Generation

We present vibrational sum frequency generation (SFG) spectra of the external surfaces and the internal interfaces of size-selected sea spray aerosol (SSA) particles generated at the wave flume of the Scripps Hydraulics Laboratory. Our findings support SSA particle models that invoke the presence of surfactants in the topmost particle layer and indicate that the alkyl chains of surfactant-rich SSA particles are likely to be disordered. Specifically, the SFG spectra suggest that across the range of sizes studied, surfactant-rich SSA particles contain CH oscillators that are subject to molecular orientation distributions that are broader than the narrow molecular distribution functions associated with well-ordered and well-aligned alkyl chains. This result is consistent with the interpretation that the permeability of organic layers at SSA particle surfaces to small reactive and nonreactive molecules may be substantial, allowing for much more exchange between reactive and nonreactive species in the gas or the condensed phase than previously thought. The SFG data also suggest that a one-component model is likely to be insufficient for describing the SFG responses of the SSA particles. Finally, the similarity of the SFG spectra obtained from the wave flume microlayer and 150 nm-sized SSA particles suggests that the SFG active CH oscillators in the topmost layer of the wave flume and the particle accumulation mode may be in similar chemical environments. Needs for additional research activities are discussed in the context of the results presented

Inside versus Outside: Ion Redistribution in Nitric Acid Reacted Sea Spray Aerosol Particles as Determined by Single Particle Analysis

Single particle analysis of individual sea spray aerosol particles shows that cations (Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, and Ca²⁺) within individual particles undergo a spatial redistribution after heterogeneous reaction with nitric acid, along with the development of a more concentrated layer of organic matter at the surface of the particle. These data suggest that specific ion and aerosol pH effects play an important role in aerosol particle structure in ways that have not been previously recognized

Real-Time Emission Factor Measurements of Isocyanic Acid from Light Duty Gasoline Vehicles

Exposure to gas-phase isocyanic acid (HNCO) has been previously shown to be associated with the development of atherosclerosis, cataracts and rheumatoid arthritis. As such, accurate emission inventories for HNCO are critical for modeling the spatial and temporal distribution of HNCO on a regional and global scale. To date, HNCO emission rates from light duty gasoline vehicles, operated under driving conditions, have not been determined. Here, we present the first measurements of real-time emission factors of isocyanic acid from a fleet of eight light duty gasoline-powered vehicles (LDGVs) tested on a chassis dynamometer using the Unified Driving Cycle (UC) at the California Air Resources Board (CARB) Haagen-Smit test facility, all of which were equipped with three-way catalytic converters. HNCO emissions were observed from all vehicles, in contrast to the idealized laboratory measurements. We report the tested fleet averaged HNCO emission factors, which depend strongly on the phase of the drive cycle; ranging from 0.46 ± 0.13 mg kg_fuel^–1 during engine start to 1.70 ± 1.77 mg kg_fuel^–1 during hard acceleration after the engine and catalytic converter were warm. The tested eight-car fleet average fuel based HNCO emission factor was 0.91 ± 0.58 mg kg_fuel^–1, within the range previously estimated for light duty diesel-powered vehicles (0.21–3.96 mg kg_fuel^–1). Our results suggest that HNCO emissions from LDGVs represent a significant emission source in urban areas that should be accounted for in global and regional models

On the Role of Particle Inorganic Mixing State in the Reactive Uptake of N₂O₅ to Ambient Aerosol Particles

The rates of heterogeneous reactions of trace gases with aerosol particles are complex functions of particle chemical composition, morphology, and phase state. Currently, the majority of model parametrizations of heterogeneous reaction kinetics focus on the population average of aerosol particle mass, assuming that individual particles have the same chemical composition as the average state. Here we assess the impact of particle mixing state on heterogeneous reaction kinetics using the N₂O₅ reactive uptake coefficient, γ­(N₂O₅), and dependence on the particulate chloride-to-nitrate ratio (<i>n</i>Cl^–/<i>n</i>NO₃^–). We describe the first simultaneous ambient observations of single particle chemical composition and in situ determinations of γ­(N₂O₅). When accounting for particulate <i>n</i>Cl^–/<i>n</i>NO₃^– mixing state, model parametrizations of γ­(N₂O₅) continue to overpredict γ­(N₂O₅) by more than a factor of 2 in polluted coastal regions, suggesting that chemical composition and physical phase state of particulate organics likely control γ­(N₂O₅) in these air masses. In contrast, direct measurement of γ­(N₂O₅) in air masses of marine origin are well captured by model parametrizations and reveal limited suppression of γ­(N₂O₅), indicating that the organic mass fraction of fresh sea spray aerosol at this location does not suppress γ­(N₂O₅). We provide an observation-based framework for assessing the impact of particle mixing state on gas–particle interactions

Size-Dependent Changes in Sea Spray Aerosol Composition and Properties with Different Seawater Conditions

A great deal of uncertainty exists regarding the chemical diversity of particles in sea spray aerosol (SSA), as well as the degree of mixing between inorganic and organic species in individual SSA particles. Therefore, in this study, single particle analysis was performed on SSA particles, integrating transmission electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analysis and scanning transmission X-ray microscopy with near edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy, with a focus on quantifying the relative fractions of different particle types from 30 nm to 1 μm. SSA particles were produced from seawater in a unique ocean-atmosphere facility equipped with breaking waves. Changes to the SSA composition and properties after the addition of biological (bacteria and phytoplankton) and organic material (ZoBell growth media) were probed. Submicrometer SSA particles could be separated into two distinct populations: one with a characteristic sea salt core composed primarily of NaCl and an organic carbon and Mg²⁺ coating (SS-OC), and a second type consisting of organic carbon (OC) species which are more homogeneously mixed with cations and anions, but not chloride. SS-OC particles exhibit a wide range of sizes, compositions, morphologies, and distributions of elements within each particle. After addition of biological and organic material to the seawater, a change occurs in particle morphology and crystallization behavior associated with increasing organic content for SS-OC particles. The fraction of OC-type particles, which are mainly present below 180 nm, becomes dramatically enhanced with increased biological activity. These changes with size and seawater composition have important implications for atmospheric processes such as cloud droplet activation and heterogeneous reactivity

Transition Metal Associations with Primary Biological Particles in Sea Spray Aerosol Generated in a Wave Channel

In the ocean, breaking waves generate air bubbles which burst at the surface and eject sea spray aerosol (SSA), consisting of sea salt, biogenic organic species, and primary biological aerosol particles (PBAP). Our overall understanding of atmospheric biological particles of marine origin remains poor. Here, we perform a control experiment, using an aerosol time-of-flight mass spectrometer to measure the mass spectral signatures of individual particles generated by bubbling a salt solution before and after addition of heterotrophic marine bacteria. Upon addition of bacteria, an immediate increase occurs in the fraction of individual particle mass spectra containing magnesium, organic nitrogen, and phosphate marker ions. These biological signatures are consistent with 21% of the supermicrometer SSA particles generated in a previous study using breaking waves in an ocean-atmosphere wave channel. Interestingly, the wave flume mass spectral signatures also contain metal ions including silver, iron, and chromium. The nascent SSA bioparticles produced in the wave channel are hypothesized to be as follows: (1) whole or fragmented bacterial cells which bioaccumulated metals and/or (2) bacteria-derived colloids or biofilms which adhered to the metals. This study highlights the potential for transition metals, in combination with specific biomarkers, to serve as unique indicators for the presence of marine PBAP, especially in metal-impacted coastal regions

Analysis of Organic Anionic Surfactants in Fine and Coarse Fractions of Freshly Emitted Sea Spray Aerosol

The inclusion of organic compounds in freshly emitted sea spray aerosol (SSA) has been shown to be size-dependent, with an increasing organic fraction in smaller particles. Here we have used electrospray ionization-high resolution mass spectrometry in negative ion mode to identify organic compounds in nascent sea spray collected throughout a 25 day mesocosm experiment. Over 280 organic compounds from ten major homologous series were tentatively identified, including saturated (C₈–C₂₄) and unsaturated (C₁₂–C₂₂) fatty acids, fatty acid derivatives (including saturated oxo-fatty acids (C₅–C₁₈) and saturated hydroxy-fatty acids (C₅–C₁₈), organosulfates (C₂–C₇, C₁₂–C₁₇) and sulfonates (C₁₆–C₂₂). During the mesocosm, the distributions of molecules within some homologous series responded to variations among the levels of phytoplankton and bacteria in the seawater. The average molecular weight and carbon preference index of saturated fatty acids significantly decreased within fine SSA during the progression of the mesocosm, which was not observed in coarse SSA, sea-surface microlayer or in fresh seawater. This study helps to define the molecular composition of nascent SSA and biological processes in the ocean relate to SSA composition