The effects of COVID-19 on child mental health: Biannual assessments up to April 2022 in a clinical and two general population samples

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has had an acute impact on child mental and social health, but long-term effects are still unclear. We examined how child mental health has developed since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic up to 2 years into the pandemic (April 2022). METHODS: We included children (age 8-18) from two general population samples ( N = 222-1333 per measurement and N = 2401-13,362 for pre-covid data) and one clinical sample receiving psychiatric care ( N = 334-748). Behavioral questionnaire data were assessed five times from April 2020 till April 2022 and pre-pandemic data were available for both general population samples. We collected parent-reported data on internalizing and externalizing problems with the Brief Problem Monitor and self-reported data on Anxiety, Depressive symptoms, Sleep-related impairments, Anger, Global health, and Peer relations with the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS®). RESULTS: In all samples, parents reported overall increased internalizing problems, but no increases in externalizing problems, in their children. Children from the general population self-reported increased mental health problems from before to during the pandemic on all six PROMIS domains, with generally worst scores in April 2021, and scores improving toward April 2022 but not to pre-pandemic norms. Children from the clinical sample reported increased mental health problems throughout the pandemic, with generally worst scores in April 2021 or April 2022 and no improvement. We found evidence of minor age effects and no sex effects. CONCLUSIONS: Child mental health in the general population has deteriorated during the first phase of the COVID-19 pandemic, has improved since April 2021, but has not yet returned to pre-pandemic levels. Children in psychiatric care show worsening of mental health problems during the pandemic, which has not improved since. Changes in child mental health should be monitored comprehensively to inform health care and policy

Individual Variations in Maternal Care Early in Life Correlate with Later Life Decision-Making and c-Fos Expression in Prefrontal Subregions of Rats

Early life adversity affects hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity, alters cognitive functioning and in humans is thought to increase the vulnerability to psychopathology–e.g. depression, anxiety and schizophrenia- later in life. Here we investigated whether subtle natural variations among individual rat pups in the amount of maternal care received, i.e. differences in the amount of licking and grooming (LG), correlate with anxiety and prefrontal cortex-dependent behavior in young adulthood. Therefore, we examined the correlation between LG received during the first postnatal week and later behavior in the elevated plus maze and in decision-making processes using a rodent version of the Iowa Gambling Task (rIGT). In our cohort of male and female animals a high degree of LG correlated with less anxiety in the elevated plus maze and more advantageous choices during the last 10 trials of the rIGT. In tissue collected 2 hrs after completion of the task, the correlation between LG and c-fos expression (a marker of neuronal activity) was established in structures important for IGT performance. Negative correlations existed between rIGT performance and c-fos expression in the lateral orbitofrontal cortex, prelimbic cortex, infralimbic cortex and insular cortex. The insular cortex correlations between c-fos expression and decision-making performance depended on LG background; this was also true for the lateral orbitofrontal cortex in female rats. Dendritic complexity of insular or infralimbic pyramidal neurons did not or weakly correlate with LG background. We conclude that natural variations in maternal care received by pups may significantly contribute to later-life decision-making and activity of underlying brain structures

Developmental associations between risk-taking and anxiety symptoms across ages 8–12 years

This study explored the transactional association between anxiety symptoms and risk-avoidance in Dutch elementary schoolchildren (N = 1200; 50% girls) across ages 8–12. Anxiety symptoms were obtained using self-, peer-, and teacher-reports. Risk-avoidance was measured using the Balloon Analogue Risk Task—Youth Version. Random-intercept cross-lagged panel models showed that, across informants, increases in anxiety symptoms predicted decreases in risk-taking. Apart from minor exceptions, this effect was similar across sexes. For peer-reports, the reverse path from decreases in risk-taking to increased anxiety was also found. Overall, this study gives insight into the developmental link between symptoms of anxiety and risk-avoidance which is important for early signaling and prevention as well as for our understanding of the consequences of childhood anxiety symptoms

Elementary school children's associations of antisocial behaviour with risk-taking across 7–11 years

BACKGROUND: The impact of childhood antisocial behaviour on future maladaptation has been acknowledged. Risk-taking has been associated with antisocial behaviour in adolescents and adults, but its association with childhood antisocial behaviour is understudied. In this study, we explored the association of children's risk-taking with antisocial behaviour in mainstream elementary schoolchildren studied longitudinally across 7-11 years. METHODS: One thousand and eighty-six children (51% boys) were assessed in three annual waves. Antisocial behaviours (aggressive, covert antisocial and oppositional defiant behaviour) were assessed using teacher- and peer-reports. Risk-taking was measured using the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). The association of antisocial behaviour with risk-taking was analysed using parallel growth models. RESULTS: Children with higher levels of risk-taking at age 7 showed increased growth in peer-reported aggression from age 7 to 11. Risk-taking, that is increased levels at age 7 in boys and increased growth in girls, predicted increased growth in peer-reported oppositional defiant behaviour. Associations of risk-taking with teacher-reported aggression and covert antisocial behaviour were at trend level. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicated that already in childhood, among typically developing children, risk-taking is associated with the development of antisocial behaviour. Future research focused on antisocial behaviour, but also school mental health workers and clinicians should take into account that already in childhood, risk-taking might affect antisocial behaviour development

Sensation-seeking-related DNA methylation and the development of delinquency: A longitudinal epigenome-wide study

Heightened sensation-seeking is related to the development of delinquency. Moreover, sensation-seeking, or biological correlates of sensation-seeking, are suggested as factors linking victimization to delinquency. Here, we focused on epigenetic correlates of sensation-seeking. First, we identified DNA methylation (DNAm) patterns related to sensation-seeking. Second, we investigated the association between sensation-seeking related DNAm and the development of delinquency. Third, we examined whether victimization was related to sensation-seeking related DNAm and the development of delinquency. Participants (N = 905; 49% boys) came from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. DNAm was assessed at birth, age 7 and age 15-17. Sensation-seeking (self-reports) was assessed at age 11 and 14. Delinquency (self-reports) was assessed at age 17-19. Sensation-seeking epigenome-wide association study revealed that no probes reached the critical significance level. However, 20 differential methylated probes reached marginal significance. With these 20 suggestive sites, a sensation-seeking cumulative DNAm risk score was created. Results showed that this DNAm risk score at age 15-17 was related to delinquency at age 17-19. Moreover, an indirect effect of victimization to delinquency via DNAm was found. Sensation-seeking related DNAm is a potential biological correlate that can help to understand the development of delinquency, including how victimization might be associated with adolescent delinquency

Dendritic morphology in 2.5 month old naïve animals.

<p>(A) Typical example of a Golgi-stained pyramidal neuron in the insula and the corresponding dendritic reconstruction drawing. Calibration bar: 20 µm (B) In male infralimbic cortex, %LG correlated negatively and significantly with the number of branch-points in the basal dendrite (n = 10, r = −0.820, p = 0.004). (C) In females, this correlation was positive and just missed significance (n = 9, r = 0.635, p = 0.066).</p

Dendritic morphology in 2.5 month old naïve animals.

<p>Correlations between individual %LG and dendritic morphology in two forebrain areas, i.e. the infralimbic cortex and the insular cortex, in 2.5 months old naïve animals (* p<0.05; ^† p<0.1). Males (n = 10) and females (n = 9) were analyzed separately.</p

Performance on the rodent Iowa Gambling Task.

<p>(A) In young-adult males and females (approx. 3 months old) there was a positive correlation between task performance on the rIGT, as indicated by the number of advantageous choices made during the last block of 10 trials, and %LG (n = 24, r = 0.521, p = 0.009). Thus, animals with higher LG scores perform better on a higher cognitive decision-making task. (B) When dividing the experimental group in ‘Low’ and ‘High’ LG animals by median split, a significant interaction effect between %LG and trial block emerged (10 trials per block; repeated measures ANOVA, main effect of group: F(1,22) = 6.485, p = 0.018; LG-group * trial block interaction: F_(11,242) = 1.807, p = 0.05; trial block: F_(11,242) = 14.544, p = 0.001). This suggests delayed learning in the ‘Low’ LG group, particularly in the first part of the task.</p