LPP Amplitude.

<p>Mean Amplitude of the early LPP for the different valences (positive, negative and neutral) in the different task difficulties. An asterisk indicates significant differences in the amplitude for the different valences.</p

HHb changes.

<p>Changes in the deoxygenated blood concentration in the region of interest. Bars indicate the standard error. An asterisk indicates significant differences between conditions.</p

O₂Hb changes.

<p>Changes in the oxygenated blood concentration in the ROI. Bars indicate the standard error. * indicates significant differences between difficulty levels (p<0.05).</p

Number of errors.

<p>Errors made in the emotional n-back test in the different valence categories. Error bars indicate the standard error. An asterisk indicates a significant result.</p

Optode Placement.

<p>Placement of the fNIRS channels included in the ROI analyses of oxygenated and deoxygenated haemoglobin concentration changes.</p

Association between Gray’s trait Anxiety (SP) scores and mean Regional Homogeneity (ReHo) over the amygdala (upper panel) and the hippocampus (lower panel).

<p>Association between Gray’s trait Anxiety (SP) scores and mean Regional Homogeneity (ReHo) over the amygdala (upper panel) and the hippocampus (lower panel).</p

ERP curves.

<p>Stimulus locked ERPs averaged at Cz, Pz, CPz, CP1 and CP2 for the valences neutral, negative and positive for the 1-back condition (a), the 2-back condition (b) and the 3-back condition (c).</p

Examining the relevance of basic numerical skills for mathematical achievement in secondary school using a within-task assessment approach

Previous research repeatedly found basic numerical abilities (e.g., magnitude understanding, arithmetic fact knowledge, etc.) to predict young students’ current and later arithmetic achievement as assessed by achievement tests – even when controlling for the influence of domain-general abilities (e.g., intelligence, working memory). However, to the best of our knowledge, previous studies hardly addressed this issue in secondary school students. Additionally, they primarily assessed basic numerical abilities in a between-task approach (i.e., using different tasks for different abilities). Finally, their relevance for real-life academic outcomes such as mathematics grades has only rarely been investigated. The present study therefore pursued an approach using one and the same task (i.e., a within-task approach) to reduce confounding effects driven by between-task differences. In particular, we evaluated the relevance of i) number magnitude understanding, ii) arithmetic fact knowledge, and iii) conceptual and procedural knowledge for the mathematics grades of 81 students aged between ten and thirteen (i.e., in Grades 5 and 6) employing the number bisection task. Results indicated that number magnitude understanding, arithmetic fact knowledge, and conceptual and procedural knowledge contributed to explaining mathematics grades even when controlling for domain-general cognitive abilities. Methodological and practical implications of the results are discussed

Mean and standard deviation of demographic data, psychiatric symptoms, reaction time in milliseconds, and artefact-free trials.

<p>Standard deviations are shown in parentheses; significant differences are marked with *.</p

Neural correlates of cognitive load while playing an emergency simulation game: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) study

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) provides reliable results for determining cognitive load based on averaged cortical blood flow during multiple repetitions of short cognitive tasks. At the same time, it remains unclear how to use this technique for assessing cognitive load during prolonged single-trial activity. In this study, we used a computer-based emergency simulation game for inducing different levels of cognitive load. We propose a novel approach to measure cognitive load using specific time slots, determined based on simulation log-data interpreted in light of Barrouillets time-based resource-sharing model. To validate this approach we compared cortical activity in DLPFC and left IFG regions measured at four specific time slots during a simulation. We found significant associations between cognitive load and neuronal activity within the DLPFC depending on the chosen time slot, whereas no such dependencies were found for the IFG. These results illustrate how knowledge of task structure could be used advantageously for the identification of cognitive load. Although requiring further investigation in terms of reliability and generalizability, the presented approach can be considered promising evidence that fNIRS might be suitable for more general reliable assessments of cognitive load during prolonged single-trial activities and for real-time adaptations in simulation-based learning environments