Regulators of DNA methylation in mammalian cells

Although the many cells within a mammal share the same DNA sequence, their gene expression programmes are highly heterogeneous, and their functions correspondingly diverse. This heterogeneity within an isogenic population of cells arises in part from the ability of each cell to respond to its immediate surroundings via a network of signalling pathways. However, this is not sufficient to explain many of the transcriptional and functional differences between cells, particularly those that are more stable, or, indeed, differences in expression between parental alleles within the same cell. This conundrum lead to the emergence of the field of epigenetics - the study of heritable changes in gene expression independent of DNA sequence. Such changes are dependent on “epigenetic modifications”, of which DNA methylation is one of the best characterised, and is associated with gene silencing. The establishment of correct DNA methylation patterns is particularly important during early development, leading to cell type specific and parental allele specific gene regulation. Besides DNA methyltransferases, various other proteins have recently been implicated in DNA methylation. The absence of these proteins leads to defects in DNA methylation and development that can be even more severe than those in DNA methyltransferase knockouts themselves. In this study I focus on three such accessory proteins: LSH (a putative chromatin remodelling ATPase), G9a (a histone lysine methyltransferase) and SmcHD1 (a structural maintenance of chromosomes protein). To compare DNA methylation between WT cells and cells knocked out for each of these proteins, I used whole genome methylated DNA affinity purification and subsequent hybridization to promoter microarrays. This enabled me to compare the requirement for each protein in DNA methylation at specific genomic regions. The absence of LSH in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) resulted in the loss of DNA methylation at 20% of usually methylated promoters, and the misregulation of associated protein coding genes. This revealed a requirement for LSH in the establishment of DNA methylation at promoters normally methylated during pre-implantation as well as post-implantation development. Secondly, I identified hypomethylation at 26% of normally methylated promoters in G9a-/- compared to WT ES cells. Strikingly, this revealed that G9a is required for maintenance of DNA methylation at maternal as well as paternal imprinting control regions (ICRs). This is accompanied by expression defects of imprinted genes regulated by these ICRs. Finally, in collaboration with the Brockdorff lab at the University of Oxford I identified a role for SmcHD1 in establishing DNA methylation at promoters on the X chromosome normally methylated slowly during X chromosome inactivation. Interestingly, SmcHD1 was also required for DNA methylation at autosomal gene promoters, contrary to previous reports that it is mainly involved in X chromosome methylation. I conclude that different accessory proteins are required to facilitate correct DNA methylation and gene repression at distinct regions of the genome, as well as at different times during development. This function of accessory proteins may be in part dependent on the prior establishment of specific chromatin signatures and developmental signals, together comprising a precisely regulated system to establish and maintain appropriate DNA methylation throughout development

The SNF2 family ATPase LSH promotes cell-autonomous de novo DNA methylation in somatic cells

Methylation of DNA at carbon 5 of cytosine is essential for mammalian development and implicated in transcriptional repression of genes and transposons. New patterns of DNA methylation characteristic of lineage-committed cells are established at the exit from pluripotency by de novo DNA methyltransferases enzymes, DNMT3A and DNMT3B, which are regulated by developmental signaling and require access to chromatin-organized DNA. Whether or not the capacity for de novo DNA methylation of developmentally regulated loci is preserved in differentiated somatic cells and can occur in the absence of exogenous signals is currently unknown. Here, we demonstrate that fibroblasts derived from chromatin remodeling ATPase LSH (HELLS)-null mouse embryos, which lack DNA methylation from centromeric repeats, transposons and a number of gene promoters, are capable of reestablishing DNA methylation and silencing of misregulated genes upon re-expression of LSH. We also show that the ability of LSH to bind ATP and the cellular concentration of DNMT3B are critical for cell-autonomous de novo DNA methylation in somatic cells. These data suggest the existence of cellular memory that persists in differentiated cells through many cell generations and changes in transcriptional state

Smchd1-Dependent and -Independent Pathways Determine Developmental Dynamics of CpG Island Methylation on the Inactive X Chromosome

X chromosome inactivation involves multiple levels of chromatin modification, established progressively and in a stepwise manner during early development. The chromosomal protein Smchd1 was recently shown to play an important role in DNA methylation of CpG islands (CGIs), a late step in the X inactivation pathway that is required for long-term maintenance of gene silencing. Here we show that inactive X chromosome (Xi) CGI methylation can occur via either Smchd1-dependent or -independent pathways. Smchd1-dependent CGI methylation, the primary pathway, is acquired gradually over an extended period, whereas Smchd1-independent CGI methylation occurs rapidly after the onset of X inactivation. The de novo methyltransferase Dnmt3b is required for methylation of both classes of CGI, whereas Dnmt3a and Dnmt3L are dispensable. Xi CGIs methylated by these distinct pathways differ with respect to their sequence characteristics and immediate chromosomal environment. We discuss the implications of these results for understanding CGI methylation during development

LSH and G9a/GLP complex are required for developmentally programmed DNA methylation

LSH, a member of the SNF2 family of chromatin remodeling ATPases encoded by the Hells gene, is essential for normal levels of DNA methylation in the mammalian genome. While the role of LSH in the methylation of repetitive DNA sequences is well characterized, its contribution to the regulation of DNA methylation and the expression of protein-coding genes has not been studied in detail. In this report we investigate genome-wide patterns of DNA methylation at gene promoters in Hells−/− mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). We find that in the absence of LSH, DNA methylation is lost or significantly reduced at ∼20% of all normally methylated promoter sequences. As a consequence, a large number of genes are misexpressed in Hells−/− MEFs. Comparison of Hells−/− MEFs with wild-type MEFs and embryonic stem (ES) cells suggests that LSH is important for de novo DNA methylation events that accompany the establishment and differentiation of embryonic lineage cells. We further show that the generation of normal DNA methylation patterns and stable gene silencing at specific promoters require cooperation between LSH and the G9a/GLP complex of histone methylases. At such loci, G9a recruitment is compromised when LSH is absent or greatly reduced. Taken together, our data suggest a mechanism whereby LSH promotes binding of DNA methyltransferases and the G9a/GLP complex to specific loci and facilitates developmentally programmed DNA methylation and stable gene silencing during lineage commitment and differentiation