Ground Water Quality Determination of former Lake Haramaya, Haramaya District, Eastern Haranghe Zone, Oroma Regional State, Ethiopia

Assessment of the potential of available groundwater in a certain area is indispensable for further development of human being in every sector. This study assessed the current groundwater quality determination to check suitability of ground water for domestic purpose. Both primary and secondary data were collected to achieve the objective of the research. In order to determine the basic hydrologic parameters, meteorological data was collected from Haramaya meteorological station. The ground water quality analyses were conducted in Dire-Dawa Water Bureau laboratory and Haramaya University laboratory. Physical, chemical and biological analysis was carried out for seven triplicate samples from the former lake area and from its catchment. Based on TDS and hardness the samples were classified as fresh and very hard water. 33.3 percent of Fluoride (mg/l) and 66.67 percent of Nitrate (mg/l) results were higher than WHO recommended value with mean of 0.88 ± 0.18 and 17.6 ± 4.4 respectively. 66.7 percent of the turbidity was found to be above the WHO limit and 83.3 percent of the samples have total colifoms above the guideline value and it reveal the necessity of treatment before use.J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage. Sept., 2012, Vol. 16 (3) 245 - 25

A Review Paper on the Role of Terrestrial Carbon Stocks for Climate Change Mitigation Mechanisms

Global warming is among the greatest terrible horrors of the modern times. The global carbon cycle is taking place in three main reservoirs (the oceans, the atmosphere, and terrestrial systems), which store carbon in different forms and varying amounts. The forest ecosystems have large potential to act as a temporary and long-term carbon (C) pool.  Global forest vegetation stores 283 Gt of carbon in its biomass, 38 Gt in dead wood and 317 Gt in soils (top 30 cm) and litter. Globally, the litter C pool accounts for an estimated 5% (43 Pg) of all forest ecosystem C stocks. Agroforestry practices can reduce or remove significant amounts of GHGs through increased carbon storage in biomass above-ground and below-ground and in soil organic carbon. Roots are an important part of the C balance, because they transfer large amounts of C into the soil. Grasslands, including rangelands, shrublands, pastureland, and cropland sown with pasture and fodder crops, covered approximately 3.5 billion ha in 2000, representing 26 percent of the world land area and 70 percent of the world agricultural area, and containing about 20 percent of the world’s soil carbon stocks.  Soils are the largest carbon reservoirs of the terrestrial carbon cycle 1500–1550 Gt of organic soil carbon and soil inorganic C approximate 750 Gt both to 1 m depth. On a global scale, carbon loss from soils is mainly associated with soil degradation, including accelerated erosion and mineralization, and land use change, and has amounted to 78+/- 12 Gt since 1850. The idea of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD) was conceived by United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as the main carbon emission reduction mechanism by developing countries. The implementation of improved land management practices to build up carbon stocks in terrestrial ecosystems is a proven technology for reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere – offsetting emissions from other sources and drawing down atmospheric CO2. Keywords: Carbon sequestration, Terrestrial carbon, Global warming and Carbon stocks. DOI: 10.7176/JEES/10-8-04 Publication date:August 31st 202

The Endurance and Decline of Single Party Dominance in African States: A Case Study of Botswana and Senegal

This article explores the underlying causes for the endurance and decline of single party dominance in Botswana and Senegal. The time period includes one-party dominance in Botswana under Botswana democratic party (1965-2009) and one-party dominance in Senegal under the socialist party (1978- 2000). The article uses qualitative research strategies with a comparative case study design. The investigation is based on a review of previous researches, published reports, government documents, and surveys websites. The article provides qualitative evidence that supports the argument that incumbent resource advantages are the most important underlying factors for the endurance and decline of single party dominance in Botswana and Senegal. Further research and quantitative evidence is necessary to test whether the same conclusion can be applied to other cases. This research contributes to the understanding of one-party dominance in developing countries.Keywords: democracy, ethnic cleavage, historical legacy, institutions, one party dominance, political cultur

Assessment of HIV Post-Exposure Prophylaxis Use Among Health Workers of Governmental Health Institutions in Jimma Zone, Oromiya Region, Southwest Ethiopia

Background: Infection with Human Immunodeficiency Virus is a serious public health problem costing the lives of many people including health workers. Hence, Ethiopia has developed guideline on the prevention of infection in health institutions in July 2004 and also employed the use of post exposure prophylaxis since the implementation of free antiretroviral in January 2005. However in the country, specifically in Jimma zone, published studies showing the clear picture about HIV post exposure prophylaxis in the work place were non-existent. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess the knowledge, practice and factors associated to HIV post-exposure prophy-laxis use among health workers of governmental health institutions in the Zone. Methods: A cross-sectional survey employing quantitative and qualitative methods was conducted from October to December 2008. Two hundred fifty four health workers participated in the quantitative study. Health workers for focus group discussion and key informants for in-depth interviews were identified with the help of administrators/HIV/AIDs coordinators of the two administrative health bureaus and institutions included in the study. The quanti-tative data were entered and cleaned using Epi Info version 6.4 and analysed using SPSS for windows version 11.0. Descriptive statistics and chi-square test was employed to assess association among variables. P-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: Among the total 254 participants, 213 (83.9%) had inadequate knowledge about post exposure prophy-laxis of HIV and 174 (68.5%) had ever been exposed to HIV risk conditions. Out of 174 health workers exposed to HIV risk, 105 (60.3%) sustained needle prick/cut by sharps, 77 (44.3%) to blood and 68 (39.1%) exposed to pa-tients’ body fluid. Perceived causes of exposure were; high workload 77 (44.3%), lack of protective barriers 58 (33.3%) and lack of knowledge on standard precautions 31 (17.8%). One hundred forty two (81.6%) of those ex-posed did not use post-exposure prophylaxis. Lack of information about the existence of post-exposure prophylaxis service 48 (33.8%), fear of stigma and discrimination 46 (32.4%), lack of understanding the value of reporting 33 (23.2%) and lack of support and encouragement to report 29 (20.4%) were the reasons for not using. Moreover, formal (separate) HIV post-exposure prophylaxis centre with proper guideline was non-existent in the study areas. Conclusions: In general, findings of the quantitative and qualitative study revealed that the knowledge of health workers about post exposure prophylaxis against HIV is inadequate. Though many of the studied health workers had HIV risk exposure, only few used post-exposure prophylaxis. Therefore, establishing a 24 hours accessible formal post-exposure prophylaxis centre with proper guideline is recommended. Health institutions are also ad-vised to raise awareness of their employees on post exposure prophylaxis

Phytochemical Screening of Secondary Metabolites of Extracts of the Plant Ajuga Integrifolia Leaves

Ajuga integrifolia belongs to the family of Lamiaceae. The leaves were collected and extract prepared from petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate and methanol. Different types and effective compounds were qualitatively conformed using standard methods. These metabolites were flavonoids, phenol, alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, tannins, phenol, lignin etc. These metabolites show their high effectivity by which they belong to medicinal plant category. Keywords: Ajuga integrifolia, secondary metabolites, Flavonoids, Alkaloids, Tannins, phenols. DOI: 10.7176/CMR/11-5-02 Publication date:May 31st 201

Water Quality Determination of Rainwater Harvesting Birkas in Harshin District of the Jijiga Zone, Somali National Regional States, Ethiopia

Harshin district of the Jijiga Zone Administration in the Somali National Regional State (SNRS) lacks ground water and surface water resources. In an effort to address the problems of recurrent drought, famine and food insecurity, attempts were made to harvest run-off water in cisterns (locally known as Birkas) for domestic and livestock use in the district. A study was carried out on 30 Birkas in three Kebeles in Harshin District to monitor quality of harvested water. The study found that EC, TDS, and nitrate in the study area are within the guideline value. However, 16.67 % of pH and 70 % of the measured turbidity are above the guideline value of 8.5 and 5 NTU respectively. Birkas that falls within the moderately hard water range were 86.7%. Of the total samples, 78.7 % exceed the standard COD value for surface water. Birkas with coliform contamination above the guideline value were 90%. Currently, rain water harvesting is the only solution for the severe water shortage problem in the community. However, considering the high bacteriological load and the higher pH and turbidity in the birkas it is essential to treat drinking water prior to consumption.Keywords: Harvesting, Birka, Physical, Chemical, Microbiolog

Improving Implementation of Formative Continuous Assessment at College of Agriculture, Wolaita Sodo University, Ethiopia

Ethiopian Ministry of Education has designed different types of curriculums from elementary to higher educational levels, and policies how students should be evaluated for best grade score and/or to produce skilled human resources, but teachers evaluation system does not yet fully address the policy. The aim of this study was to evaluate teachers’ and students’ attitude towards formative continuous assessment and to take an action to raise their attitude. Twenty one lecturers and one hundred five second year students from all seven departments under College of Agriculture were selected as respondents. For the purpose of evaluating teachers’ and students’ attitude towards formative continuous assessment, 12-item question (both before and after interventions) on a Likert Scale was given. Accordingly, the overall percentage of incorrect answers were accounted 64% from teachers and 66% from students, which implies that more than half of the respondents have negative attitude towards formative continuous assessment and its implementation. Lack of awareness and positive attitude towards formative continuous assessment, inadequate teaching-learning facilities, large number of students per class, lack of motivation, lack of smooth relationship between students and teachers were some of the common issues that were reflected as factors which affects formative continuous assessment implementation during focus group discussions. Based on the results from the initial questions and focus group discussions, a refresher and awareness training was given to both teachers and students to raise their attitude. After all the actions, 12-item questions (exactly the same as the initial questions) were given again to the same size of respondents. For this reason, the overall percentage of correct answers were 66% from teachers and 68% from students, which showed that majority of the teachers and students have positive attitude towards formative continuous assessment and its implementation. Keywords: Attitude, formative continuous assessment, intervention, Wolaita Sodo University

Challenges and Opportunities of Small-Scale Irrigation Utilization in Rift Valley Basin, Humbo Woreda, Ethiopia

Ethiopia has abundant water resources, but its agricultural system does not yet fully benefit from the technologies of water management and irrigation. This study was conducted with the aim of assessing opportunities and constraints towards utilization of small-scale irrigation by smallholder farmers’ and to assess the organizational set-up of water users association in the study area. In this study multi-stage sampling techniques were used to select 150 target respondents in which 90 irrigation users and 60 non-irrigation users. To collect the required data several methods like interview schedule, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were used. From focus group discussions and key informant interviews, different challenges and opportunities were forwarded and underlined by the participants regarding with household’s participation decision on small-scale irrigation. The overall opportunities for the development and management of irrigation water are the availability of high surface water potential, good motivation and willingness of irrigation users to attend scientific trainings and high commitment of the Ethiopia government, donors and NGOs to support irrigation management and development activity. While different constraints were also forwarded related with poor technology choice, too small landholdings, conflicts in water use and use rights, lack of market information and access, lack of training on irrigation technologies, lack of irrigation structure maintenance, poor linkage between research and extension services, poor infrastructures such as roads, lack of adequate credit service and extension packages. Regarding to the organizational set-up of water users association, the general assembly is the highest body in water users’ association committee which makes the final decisions based on the bylaws. The composition of the general assembly from all irrigation schemes has chairman, secretary, auditors, operation and maintenance committees. An Executive Committee consists of seven members for overall operation and maintenance of irrigation systems. The executive committees were further decentralized in to three branches. These sub-executive committees comprising two members in each were in charge of control water distribution and coordination of maintenance activities and conflict resolutions. Therefore, to alleviate these constraints and utilize the opportunities towards small-scale irrigation, the concerned bodies should attempt to minimize those factors that hinder productivity of irrigation water in the study area. Keywords: Challenges, Opportunities, Rift Valley Basin, Water users association

Can Global Governance be Democratically Legitimized? A Critical Reflection on Three Proposals for the Democratic Deficit

Global governance actors and institutions suffer from democratic deficit. The paper has examined the three proposals for mitigating the democratic deficit in global governance: Global people’s Assembly (Flak and Strauss, 2000, 2001); Global accountability mechanisms (Grant and Keohane, 2005); and political deliberation (Steffek and Nanz, 2008). I have shown that the proposal for creating global representative institutions is premature since there are no global demos. In addition, the attempt to replicate democratic institutions and procedures at the level of states to the global level will be difficult to realize. I have argued that the proposal for political deliberation can address the problems of democratic legitimacy in global governance since it emphasizes normative democratic values of inclusion, participation, transparency, responsiveness and deliberation Keywords- Global governance, democratic deficit, accountability, global parliament, political deliberations

Socio-Economic Determinants of Credit Service Utilization by Smallholder Households at Wolaita Zone, Ethiopia

The objective of the study was to identify the determinants of credit service utilization in the study area. In this study multi-stage sampling techniques were used to select 5 kebeles out of 42 kebeles of the study area and 150 sample households were randomly selected, of which 82 were credit users and 68 of them were non-users. Primary data were collected through structured interview schedule. Various documents were reviewed to collect the secondary data. In the study Econometric model (binary logit model) was used to identify the determinants of credit service utilization. A total of fifteen explanatory variables were included in the model. Out of these, seven were found to be statistically significant and most of the coefficients of these variables exhibited the expected signs with the hypothesis. These variables include total income, saving habit, collateral type, training and technical advice, possession of fixed assets, risk fearing and lending procedure. Therefore, credit service providers should give attention to factors that significantly influence credit service utilization in order to improve the performance of microfinance service provision and credit service utilization. Keywords: Credit, binary logistic regression model, Determinants, Credit Utilization, Smallholder Households, Wolaita Zone