Effect of alternate high-fat dietary regimen on adipocyte size and plasma leptin production.

<p>(a) Adipocyte morphology (200×), (b) quantification of the adipocyte size (n = 6 animals/group) and (c) plasma leptin levels (week 16) (c). Groups are abbreviated as: Mice fed low- fat diet (LFD); mice fed intermediate- fat diet (IFD); mice fed high- fat diet (HFD) and mice fed 4 days LFD and 3 days HFD, alternating- fat diet (AFD). ***p<0.001. Values are represented as means ± SEM.</p

Effect of alternate high-fat dietary regimen on renal morphology and function.

<p>(a) Morphology of the kidney (PAS staining). Mesangial expansion (PAS positive area) (red arrow), thickening of the Bowman ’s capsule (yellow arrow), thickening of tubular basement membrane (blue arrow), vacuolarization (lipid accumulation) of the tubules (green arrow), and protein cast formation (orange arrow) (inset- highlighted areas in HFD kidney) (200×) (b) Albumin: creatinine ratio (n = 13−15). Lines with regular ticks indicate base line levels. (c) relative mRNA expression levels of NGAL, (d) relative mRNA expression levels of KIM-1. Groups are abbreviated as: Mice fed low- fat diet (LFD); mice fed intermediate- fat diet (IFD); mice fed high- fat diet (HFD) and mice fed 4 days LFD and 3 days HFD, alternating- fat diet (AFD). *p<0.05, **p<0.01. Values represented as individual animal + mean.</p

Effect of alternate high-fat dietary regimen on renal inflammation.

<p>(a) Immunohistochemistry of macrophage infiltrates. Inset shows a representative glomerulus which is indicated by arrow mark (200×), and (b) quantification of macrophage infiltrates in glomeruli (n = 8 animals/group). Groups are abbreviated as: Mice fed low- fat diet (LFD); mice fed intermediate- fat diet (IFD); mice fed high- fat diet (HFD) and mice fed 4 days LFD and 3 days HFD, alternating- fat diet (AFD). *p<0.05, **p<0.01. Values are represented as means ± SEM.</p

Effect of alternate high-fat dietary regimen on body weight, food intake and plasma cholesterol.

<p>(a) Food intake, (b) body weight gain, and (c) plasma cholesterol. Groups are abbreviated as: Mice fed low- fat diet (LFD, n = 15); mice fed intermediate- fat diet (IFD, n = 15); mice fed high- fat diet (HFD, n = 15), and mice fed 4 days LFD and 3 days HFD, alternating- fat diet (AFD, n = 15). ***p<0.001, *p<0.05 compared to LFD, # p<0.05 compared to IFD and $ p<0.05 compared to AFD. Values are represented as means ± SEM.</p

Relative mRNA expression levels of proinflammatory genes.

<p>Hepatic mRNA expression of endothelial activation (VCAM-1, ICAM-1 and endothelin-1) and inflammation markers (CD68). Renal mRNA expression of endothelial activation (VCAM-1, ICAM-1, E-selectin and Endothelin-1), inflammation (MCP-1 and CD68), and fibrosis markers (Desmin and PDGF-b). Groups are abbreviated as: Mice fed low- fat diet (LFD); mice fed intermediate- fat diet (IFD); mice fed high- fat diet (HFD) and mice fed 4 days LFD and 3 days HFD, alternating- fat diet (AFD). Superscripts without a common letter differ significantly P<0.05. Values are represented as means ± SD.</p

Effects of nutritional ingredients on body composition and food intake in LDLr-/-.Leiden mice.

<p>Changes in Body weight over time (A) and average daily food intake (B). Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 15. Significant diet effects are shown by *P<0.05 or **P<0.01 compared to HFD. LFD = Low Fat Diet; HFD = High Fat Diet + control gavage; HFD + nutritional ingredients (including eHC, ARA, DHA, and gavage with LGG).</p

Effect of alternate high-fat dietary regimen on fasting plasma glucose, fasting plasma insulin, and glucose intolerance after 18 weeks.

<p>(a) Fasting plasma glucose (n = 8 animals/group), (b) fasting plasma insulin (n = 15 animals/group), (c) glucose tolerance (n = 8 animals/group), and (d) Area under curve of the glucose tolerance test. Groups are abbreviated as: Mice fed low- fat diet (LFD); mice fed intermediate- fat diet (IFD); mice fed high- fat diet (HFD) and mice fed 4 days LFD and 3 days HFD, alternating- fat diet (AFD)). Lines with regular ticks indicate base line levels of the glucose clearance from blood. *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001. Values are represented as means ± SEM.</p

Vasculoprotective effects of nutritional ingredients in LDLr-/-.Leiden mice.

<p>Albuminurea at 15 weeks (A) and Atherosclerosis (B) at 21 weeks of dietary interventions. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 15. Significant diet effects are shown by *P<0.05 or **P<0.01 compared to HFD. Low Fat Diet; HFD = High Fat Diet + control gavage; HFD + nutritional ingredients (including eHC, ARA, DHA, and gavage with LGG).</p

Effects of individual nutritional ingredients.

<p>Effects of individual nutritional ingredients.</p

Liver integrity and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in LDLr-/-.Leiden mice.

<p>Liver mass at 21 weeks of feeding regimes (A), alanine aminotransferase (ALAT) over time (B), liver macrovascular steatosis (C) and lobular inflammation (D). Representative Sirius Red staining of liver (E) and quantitative biochemical analysis of hepatic total collagen (F) at 21 weeks of dietary interventions. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 15. Significant diet effects are shown by *P<0.05 or **P<0.01. Low Fat Diet; HFD = High Fat Diet + control gavage; HFD + nutritional ingredients (including eHC, ARA, DHA, and gavage with LGG).</p