Maternal age, education level and migration: Socioeconomic determinants for smoking during pregnancy in a field study from Turkey

WOS: 000279909900003PubMed ID: 20534133Background: Smoking during pregnancy has been associated with socioeconomic determinants and it is recognized as the most important preventable risk factor for an unsuccessful pregnancy outcome. Turkey has national data on the prevalance of smoking during pregnancy; however there is no data on the characteristics of the high-risk population. This is a field study that aims to identify socioeconomic determinants for smoking during pregnancy as well as differentiating the daily and occasional smokers. Method: Cross sectional study was conducted among women with 0-5 year old children living in the area served by Primary Health Care Center (PHCC) in Burhaniye, Turkey. Face-to-face interviews were conducted by the researchers during January-March 2008 at the home of the participants with 83.7% response rate (n = 256). The relation of "smoking during pregnacy" and "daily smoking during pregnancy" with the independent variables was determined with chi(2) tests. Women's age, educational level, number of previous births, place of origin, migration, partner's educational level, poverty, perceived income, social class were evaluated. Statistical significance was achieved when the p value was less than 0.05. The variables in relation with the dependent variables in the chi(2) tests were included in the forward-stepwise logistic analysis. Results: Prevalance of smoking during pregnancy was 22.7%. The majority (74.1%) were daily smokers. Young mothers (< 20), low educated women and migrants were at increased risk for smoking during pregnancy. Low education and being a migrant were risk factors for daily consumption (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Systematic attention should be paid to socioeconomic determinants in smoking for pregnant women, especially in countries like Turkey with high rates of infant and mother mortality and substantial health inequalities. Young mothers (< 20), low educated women and migrants are important groups to focus on

Towards Zero Defect Software: The Cleanroom Approach

In this report we review the Cleanroom Methodology for software development. The Cleanroom targets certification of Mean Time To Failure of Software, which leads to a high quality software product. The methodology relies on a correct, complete and stable specification, as well as proven design and statistical methods for functional testing. We present an overview of this process, as well as its phases and needs. The migration to the Cleanroom methodology is also discussed. Finally we provide some discussion on the economics of software quality. Conclusions are presented and related to our research. Contents 1 Introduction 3 2 The Cleanroom methodology 3 2.1 Software Specification in the Cleanroom : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4 2.2 Software Design/Correctness in the Cleanroom : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5 2.2.1 Design : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5 2.2.2 Correctness : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :..

Practical estimation and distribution of diffuse pollutants arising from a watershed in Turkey

This study presents the diffuse pollution profile of a coastal watershed with respect to the dominating sector of agriculture including forestry. A rough estimation of the diffuse loads expressed by two major nutrients of nitrogen and phosphorous is realized by calculations based on unit loads obtained from literature for each land-use activity. The key concern is to rank the different diffuse loads arising from the watershed. The major diffuse nitrogen loads are estimated to arise from agricultural activities with 54%, followed by livestock breeding that contribute to the nitrogen budget by 11%. Almost 7% of the nitrogen loads come from meadows and pasture, and 5% from forests. In the distribution of diffuse phosphorus loads, it is estimated that 48% of the loads arise from agricultural activities, and 18% from livestock breeding. Almost 14% of the phosphorous loads come from septic tank effluents; however, 13% of the loads are due to rural run-off. The future loads for years 2028 and 2039 are also estimated; 30-40% decrease is foreseen in the agricultural pollutants and animal manure through the stepwise application of ecological agriculture and livestock breeding. The basic aim of this study is to put forth a practical methodology for estimating diffuse loads in a watershed for the decision-makers and local administrative authorities with limited available data especially. Through such, distribution of various diffuse loads becomes available among the administrative units composing the watershed