Participants\u27 Experiences in Two Types of Sporting Events: A Quest for Evidence of the SL-CL Continuum

The dichotomy of serious leisure (SL) and casual leisure (CL) has significant limitations, leaving some leisure experiences unexplained. The SL-CL continuum proposed by Shen and Yarnal (2010) aims at filling this gap by providing a description based on behavioral commitment. We present evidence supporting the SL-CL continuum obtained by comparing participants in two different types of sporting events: an international/major and a national/minor event. Quantitative data on leisure motives and identity, corresponding to four SL and two CL characteristics, were collected from self-administered questionnaires. Both samples reported moderate to high intensities across the characteristics. However, international/major participants were more serious and national/minor participants more casual in their leisure experience. Participants were not effectively described in terms of the SL-CL dichotomy

Coping with recession in the ski-industry: A suppliers’ and consumers’ perspective

The current study explores the impact of the recession on the ski industry based on interviews with suppliers in two ski resorts (n=10) as well as ski travel agencies (n=8). Subsequently, Flemish ski tourists (n=252) were surveyed about changes in their behavior towards ski vacations from 2008 to 2011, taking into account their socio-cultural background as well their level of ski/snowboard participation. Both studies reveal a decline in ski tourism during the years under investigation. The impact of the recession varies according to the type of sports provider. The impact of the recession on ski vacations is more prevalent for some groups in society (e.g., households with no children, more financial constraints, lower professional status, younger people), regardless if one is a highly motivated and/or experienced skier. This paper contributes to socio-economic theory related to the ski tourism industry and assists suppliers to identify strategies to overcome hurdles during a recession

Modeling resident spending behavior during sport events: Do residents contribute to economic impact?

The role of residents in the calculation of economic impact remains a point of contention. It is unclear if changes in resident spending caused by an event contribute positively, negatively, or not at all. Building on previous theory we develop a comprehensive model that explains all 72 possible behaviors of residents based on changes in (a) spending, (b) multiplier, (c) timing of expenditures, and (d) geographic location of spending. Applying the model to Super Bowl 50 indicates that few residents were affected, positive and negative effects were relatively equivalent, thus their overall impact is negligible. This leaves practitioners the option to engage in the challenging process of gathering data on all four variables on all residents or to revert back to the old model of entirely excluding residents from economic impact. From a theoretical perspective, there is a pressing need to properly conceptualize the time variable in economic impact studies

Social sustainability of non-mega sport events in a global world

This contribution offers a theoretical perspective on the social impacts of sport events. Most research in this area has focused on global mega sport events (MSEs). However, given the fact that there are many more, smaller non-mega sport events (NMSEs) being organised in this global world, the paper calls for a reflection on how these smaller types of events can potentially contribute to benefit residents of local communities. The paper contrasts and compares social impacts and outcomes of both, MSEs and NMSEs, using four different perspectives: power relations, urban regeneration, socialisation, and human capital. There is reason to believe that NMSEs may be more relevant in creating durable benefits for host communities, as compared to MSEs. This is explained through the concept of social capital. Because NMSEs are omni-present, they may provide more lasting global benefits. The paper calls for a broader research agenda focussing on the true value of small and medium sized sport events for local communities

Expenditures on Sport Apparel: Creating Consumer Profiles through Interval Regression Modelling

Using a heterodox theoretical approach, this article presents sport consumer profiles based on socio-demographic and sport-related lifestyle characteristics. Sport apparel is operationalized as a categorical, hierarchical variable. Given the censored nature of the dependent variable, a two step Heckman-type approach with an interval regression model was used. Data were obtained from a cross-sectional sample of adults in Flanders, Belgium (N=1355). The results indicate that the decision to spend money on sport clothing and shoes is mainly determined by sport-related lifestyle characteristics, confirming the emerging importance of lifestyle in understanding the decision to consume material goods. However, the variability in the amount of money spent on sport apparel is explained by both socio-demographic variables and sport-related lifestyle characteristics. Consequently, both socio-demographic and lifestyle variables are used in the interval regression models, which is introduced as a novel technique to create consumer profiles. These profiles assist sporting goods marketers in refining their strategies to reach specific target markets

Impacts and strategic outcomes from non-mega sport events for local communities

The staging of sport events directly impacts the quality of life of people living in the host communities. Sport events are temporal and can trigger a variety of short- or long-term, positive or negative impacts, which lead to positive or negative outcomes, and if sustained, these outcomes have been called ‘legacies.’ Impacts may result from strategic planning, but more often than not there is scant strategic planning for event outcomes, so impacts are typically haphazard and unplanned (albeit hoped for). Strategic planning for event outcomes (aka: leveraging) differs from mere legacy planning because it focuses attention on the means to obtain desired economic, social, and/or environmental objectives through integration of each event into the host community\u27s overall product and service mix (Chalip, 2014). Whereas legacy planning focuses on the event and the outcomes it might render for the community, event leverage focuses on the community and the ways that it can integrate each event into its marketing and management strategies. These are different in ways that are subtle but important in practice

Construct validity of social impact scales for sport events

This study tests the construct validity of two different social impact scales by comparing the perceived social impact of a non-mega sport event for the same group of respondents. To date, several theories have underpinned the development of various social impact scales, and there is a need for more robust and unified measurement tools. Data were collected from 626 residents in the context of the 2014 Ontario Summer Games (OSG). Event attendees (29%) and non-event attendees (71%) completed a questionnaire (electronically or on paper) which included 17 social impact items, reflecting two previously developed social impact scales (SIS-A consisting of 4 constructs and SIS-B consisting of 5 constructs). Principal Component Analysis showed sufficient convergent validity of theoretical constructs in both scales, but Pearson correlations between the constructs only partially supported discriminant validity. Therefore, EFA was conducted revealing two components: a “positive” and “negative” social impact factor of SIS-A (whether or not a new sport participation variable was included). EFA of SIS-B without the sport participation variable resulted in a similar set of two components. However, when the sport participation variable was added to SIS-B, three components appeared. The positive social impact was now represented by two constructs; the third factor remained the negative social impact factor. An EFA of all 17 items revealed the same three constructs: (1) “Feel-Good and Social Cohesion”, (2) “Social Capital”, and (3) “Conflict and Disorder”. Based on the findings, a scale of 13 items and three constructs is proposed

Evaluating Sport Development Outcomes: The Case of a Medium Sized International Sport Event

Research question: This study evaluates sport development outcomes of a medium-sized, one-off, international sport event, while also exploring any strategies and tactics that were implemented with the intention to increase participation or other sport development outcomes. The event under investigation is the 2005 Pan American Junior Athletics Championships. Research method: Retrospective perceptions of sport development outcomes were explored using event documents, 21 semistructured interviews with key stakeholders, and media coverage of the event. Results and Findings: The coaching clinic and the new facility were the only two intended tactics expected to intentionally trigger increases in sport participation and development. The sport facility seemed to have been successful, the coaching clinic was not. All other perceived outcomes, both positive and negative were unintended, and their underlying processes are unclear. Partnerships and relationships were established, but were not activated to serve sport development. It was assumed that ‘awareness,’ the new facility, and positive media coverage would automatically attract new participants. There is some evidence to support the ‘demonstration effect’ for those already involved in the sport, but not for new sport participation. A number of missed opportunities to build sport participation were retrospectively identified. Participation effects in the absence of leveraging are likely to be negligible. Implications: Formulation and implementation of strategies and tactics, and measurements need to be put into place from the outset of an event. This will enable the efficacy of strategies and tactics to be benchmarked and assessed. Future research should focus on the underlying processes, rather than just the impacts and outcomes

Economic Impact Analysis Versus Cost Benefit Analysis: The Case of a Medium-Sized Sport Event

This paper empirically illustrates the difference between a standard economic impact analysis (EIA) and a cost-benefit analysis (CBA). The EIA was conducted using an existing (input-output) I-O model (STEAM). The benefit side of the CBA included non-local visitor spending, the revenue of the local organizing committee (LOC), the consumer surplus, and public good value of the sport event for the local residents. The cost side of the CBA was estimated based on the opportunity costs related to the construction of the stadium (including labor costs and the cost of borrowing), imports, and ticket sales to locals. The EIA indicated that the 2005 Pan-American Junior Athletic Championships generated a net increase in economic activity in the city of $5.6 million. The CBA showed a negative net benefit of$2.4 million. Both methods presented challenges and limitations, but CBA has the distinct advantage that it identifies the net benefits associated with hosting a sport event