Anthocyanidins and anthocyanins: colored pigments as food, pharmaceutical ingredients, and the potential health benefits

Anthocyanins are colored water-soluble pigments belonging to the phenolic group. The pigments are in glycosylated forms. Anthocyanins responsible for the colors, red, purple, and blue, are in fruits and vegetables. Berries, currants, grapes, and some tropical fruits have high anthocyanins content. Red to purplish blue-colored leafy vegetables, grains, roots, and tubers are the edible vegetables that contain a high level of anthocyanins. Among the anthocyanin pigments, cyanidin-3-glucoside is the major anthocyanin found in most of the plants. The colored anthocyanin pigments have been traditionally used as a natural food colorant. The color and stability of these pigments are influenced by pH, light, temperature, and structure. In acidic condition, anthocyanins appear as red but turn blue when the pH increases. Chromatography has been largely applied in extraction, separation, and quantification of anthocyanins. Besides the use of anthocyanidins and anthocyanins as natural dyes, these colored pigments are potential pharmaceutical ingredients that give various beneficial health effects. Scientific studies, such as cell culture studies, animal models, and human clinical trials, show that anthocyanidins and anthocyanins possess antioxidative and antimicrobial activities, improve visual and neurological health, and protect against various non-communicable diseases. These studies confer the health effects of anthocyanidins and anthocyanins, which are due to their potent antioxidant properties. Different mechanisms and pathways are involved in the protective effects, including free-radical scavenging pathway, cyclooxygenase pathway, mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, and inflammatory cytokines signaling. Therefore, this review focuses on the role of anthocyanidins and anthocyanins as natural food colorants and their nutraceutical properties for health. Abbreviations: CVD: Cardiovascular disease VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV/AIDS patients in the context of early treatment initiation in Vietnam

Hue Thi Mai,1 Giang Minh Le,1,2 Bach Xuan Tran,1,3,4 Ha Ngoc Do,5 Carl A Latkin,3 Luong Thanh Nguyen,6 Thao Phuong Thi Thai,7,8 Huong Thi Le,9 Anh Toan Ngo,10 Cuong Tat Nguyen,11 Cyrus SH Ho,12 Roger CM Ho13 1Institute for Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam; 2Center for Research and Training on HIV/AIDS (CREATA), Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam; 3Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; 4Vietnam Young Physician Association, Hanoi, Vietnam; 5Youth Research Institute, Vietnam (YRI)-Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth Union, Hanoi, Vietnam; 6Center of Excellence in Evidence-based Medicine, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; 7Department of General Planning, Friendship Hospital, Hanoi, Vietnam; 8Department of Cardiology, Friendship Hospital, Hanoi, Vietnam; 9Vietnam Administration of HIV/AIDS Control, Hanoi, Vietnam; 10National Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hanoi, Vietnam; 11Institute for Global Health Innovations, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam; 12Department of Psychological Medicine, National University Hospital, Singapore, Singapore; 13Department of Psychological Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore Purpose: This study aimed to assess the antiretroviral therapy (ART) compliance among patients with HIV/AIDS and its associated factors in the context of universal ART initiation in Vietnam. Patients and methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted in five ART clinics located in three provinces, such as Hanoi, Thanh Hoa, and Lao Cai, from July to September 2017. Overall, adherence to ART in the last month was measured using a 100-point Visual Analog Scale (VAS). Besides, information about forgetting doses in the last 4 days and delaying taking pills in the last 7 days was also reported. Results: Among 482 patients, the suboptimal adherence rate was 54.5%. Noncurrent smoking (coefficient =4.19, 95% CI 0.42–7.97), higher baseline CD4 count (coefficient =4.35, 95% CI 0.58–8.13), and no traveling difficulties (coefficient =6.17, 95% CI 2.27–10.06) were predictors of higher VAS adherence score. Suboptimal adherence was associated with mountainous residence (OR =5.34, 95% CI 2.81–10.16). Female respondents were less likely to delay taking pills in the last 7 days (OR =0.19, 95% CI 0.07–0.52). Conclusion: Our study embraced early ART initiation in Vietnam; however, this approach should be parallel with appropriate resource allocation and service delivery. Keywords: HIV/AIDS, antiretroviral therapy, ART adherence, Visual Analog Scale, VA

Demand and willingness to pay for different treatment and care services among patients with heart diseases in Hanoi, Vietnam

Bach Xuan Tran,1,2 Giang Thu Vu,3 Thu Hong Thi Nguyen,4 Long Hoang Nguyen,5 Dat Dinh Pham,4 Viet Quang Truong,4 Thao Phuong Thi Thai,6 Thuc Minh Thi Vu,7 Tuan Quoc Nguyen,8 Vu Nguyen,9 Trang Huyen Thi Nguyen,10 Carl A Latkin,2 Cyrus SH Ho,11 Roger CM Ho12 1Department of Health Economics, Institute for Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam; 2Department of Health, Behavior and Society, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; 3Center of Excellence in Evidence-based Medicine, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; 4Hanoi Heart Hospital, Hanoi, Vietnam; 5Center of Excellence in Behavioral Medicine, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; 6Department of General Planning and Department of Cardiology, Friendship Hospital, Hanoi, Vietnam; 7Tam Anh Hospital, Hanoi, Vietnam; 8Hanoi Department of Health, Hanoi, Vietnam; 9Department of Neurosurgery Spine-Surgery, Hanoi Medical University Hospital, Hanoi, Vietnam; 10Institute for Global Health Innovations, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam; 11Department of Psychological Medicine, National University Hospital, Singapore, Singapore; 12Department of Psychological Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore Introduction: In Vietnam, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are serious health issues, especially in the context of overload central heart hospitals, insufficient primary healthcare, and lack of customer-oriented care and treatment. Attempts to measure demand and willingness-to-pay (WTP) for different CVD treatments and care services have been limited. This study explored the preferences and WTP of patients with heart diseases for different home- and hospital-based services in Hanoi, Vietnam. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was performed at the Hanoi Heart Hospital from July to December 2017. A contingent valuation was adopted to determine the preferences of patients and measure their WTP. Interval regressions were employed to determine the potential predictors of patients’ WTP. Results: Hospital-based services were most preferred by patients, with demand ranging from 45.6% to 82.3% of total participants, followed by home-based (45.4%–45.8%) and administrative services (28.9%–34%). WTP for hospital-based services were in the range of US$9.8 (US$ 8.4–11.2)–US$21.9 (US$ 20.3–23.4), while figures for home-based and administrative services were US$9.8 (US$ 8.4–11.2)–US$22 (US$ 18.7–25.3) and 1.9 (US 1.6–2.2)–US 7.5 (US$ 6.3–8.6), respectively. Patients who lived in urban areas, were employed, were having higher level of education, and were not covered by health insurance were willing to pay more for services, especially home-based ones. Conclusion: Demand and WTP for home-based services among heart disease patients were moderately low compared with hospital-based ones. There is a need for more policies supporting home-based services, better communication of services’ benefits to general public and patients, and introduction of services packages based on patients’ preferences. Keywords: willingness to pay, preference, heart disease, service, Vietna

Catastrophic health expenditure of Vietnamese patients with gallstone diseases – a case for health insurance policy revaluation

Bach Xuan Tran,1,2,* Tho Dinh Tran,3,* Nila Nathan,4 Chau Quy Ngo,5 Loi Thi Nguyen,6 Long Hoang Nguyen,7 Huong Lan Thi Nguyen,8 Cuong Tat Nguyen,8 Huyen Phuc Do,7 Trang Huyen Thi Nguyen,9 Tung Thanh Tran,9 Thao Phuong Thi Thai,10,11 Anh Kim Dang,8 Nam Ba Nguyen,7 Carl A Latkin,2 Cyrus SH Ho,12 Roger CM Ho7,13 1Department of Health Economics, Institute for Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam; 2Department of Health, Behavior and Society, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; 3Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Vietnam-Germany Hospital, Hanoi, Vietnam; 4University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA; 5Department of Internal Medicine, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam; 6Woolcock Institute of Medical Research Vietnam, Hanoi, Vietnam; 7Center of Excellence in Behavioral Medicine, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; 8Institute for Global Health Innovations, Duy Tan University, Danang, Vietnam; 9Center of Excellence in Evidence-based Medicine, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; 10Department of General Planning, Friendship Hospital, Hanoi, Vietnam; 11Department of Cardiology, Friendship Hospital, Hanoi, Vietnam; 12Department of Psychological Medicine, National University Hospital, Singapore; 13Department of Psychological Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore *These authors contributed equally to this work Purpose: Despite gallstone diseases (GSDs) being a major public health concern with both acute and chronic episodes, none of the studies in Vietnam has been conducted to investigate the household expenditure for the GSD treatment. The objective of this study was to estimate the costs of managing GSD and to explore the prevalence and determinants of catastrophic health expenditure (CHE) among Vietnamese patients.Materials and methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted from June 2016 to March 2017 in the Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Viet Duc Hospital in Hanoi, Vietnam. A total of 206 patients were enrolled. Demographic and socioeconomic data, household income, and direct and indirect medical costs of patients seeking treatment for GSD were collected through face-to-face interview. Multivariate logistic regression was used to explore factors associated with CHE.Results: The prevalence of CHE in patients suffering from GSD was 35%. The percentage of patients who were covered by health insurance and at risk for CHE was 41.2%, significantly higher than that of those noninsured (15.8%). Proportions of patients with and without health insurance who sought outpatient treatment were 30.6% and 81.6%, respectively. Patients who were divorced or widowed and had intrahepatic gallstones were significantly more likely to experience CHE. Those who were outpatients, were women, had history of pharmacological treatment to parasitic infection, and belong to middle and highest monthly household income quantile were significantly less likely to experience CHE.Conclusion: The findings suggested that efforts to re-evaluate health insurance reimbursement capacity, especially for acute diseases and taking into account the varying preferences of people with different disease severity, should be conducted by health authority. Further studies concerning CHE of GSD in the context of ongoing health policy reform should consider utilizing WHO-recommended measures like the fairness in financial contribution index, as well as taking into consideration the behavioral aspects of health care spending. Keywords: catastrophic health expenditure, gallstone, health insurance, out-of-pocket payments, Vietnam &nbsp