National bank notes and silver certificates

From 1883 to 1892, the circulation of national bank notes in the United States fell nearly 50 percent. Previous studies have attributed this to supply-side factors that led to a decline in the profitability of note issue during this period. This paper provides an alternative explanation. The decline in note issue was, in large part, demand-driven. The presence of a competing currency with superior features caused the public to substitute away from national bank notes.Paper money ; National bank notes ; Silver

Analysis of Coal Combustion By-Products Disposal Practices at the San Juan Mine: Hydrologic and Water Quality Issues

Coal Combustion By-Products (CCBs) are generated by the burning of coal for electric power generation and as waste streams from emissions control systems. They consist of bottom ash from the furnaces, fly ash from electrostatic precipitators, and flue gas desulfurization sludge from air pollution scrubbers. Depending on the characteristics of the coal, CCBs may contain high concentrations of metals or other constituents that present a threat to ground or surface water resources if not properly managed. This report describes results of an investigation of CCBs generated by a power plant in northwestern New Mexico. Coal Combustion By-Products from this plant are disposed in mined out areas of a nearby surface coal mine. The objective of this project was to determine the potential for leachate from CCB disposal to contaminate underlying ground water. This was done by: 1) measuring the physical characteristics of fresh and buried CCBs that affect their unsaturated hydraulic properties; 2) determining the chemical, mineralogical, and leaching characteristics of these materials, and 3) through development of a numerical simulation of water migration through an unsaturated column of cover material and buried CCBs. The CCBs were found to have a dry bulk density of about 1100 kg/m3 and 800 kg/m3 for fly and bottom ash respectively, however, both are highly compressible and their density varies with effective stress. The saturated hydraulic conductivity of these materials was about 1x10-4 cm/s for fly ash, 5x10-3 cm/s for bottom ash, and less than 8.5x10-6 cm/s for spoil material used for cover. Soil moisture characteristic curves were measured to permit calculation of unsaturated hydraulic conductivities. Acid digestion and subsequent elemental analysis of the fly and bottom ash found them to consist primarily of aluminum, barium, calcium, potassium, sodium, and silicon. The mineralogy of these samples is dominated by amorphous glass along with mullite (Al6Si2O13), quartz (SiO2), calcite (CaCO3) and clay minerals. Flue gas desulfurization sludge primarily consists of gypsum (CaSO4 .2H2O). Batch and column leach tests of fresh and aged CCBs suggest some dissolution of amorphous materials occurs, but elemental concentrations in the leachates were moderate. Arsenic was present in both the ash material and subsequent leachates but at very low concentrations. Numerical simulation of water flow through 2 m of cover material into buried CCBs predict very low infiltration rates, less than 0.4 mm/yr, due to low hydraulic conductivity of the cover and water uptake by vegetation. At the bottom of the pit, infiltration from the CCBs into underlying sandstone was predicted to be near zero, and some modeled scenarios actually predicted an upward flux of water. The very low (or possibly zero) downward flow of ground water through the unsaturated waste predicted by the modeling study, together with the low concentrations of contaminants in leachates from buried CCBs provides evidence that the potential for contamination of the underlying regional aquifer at this site is small

Key ecological sites of Hamilton City: Volume 1

Ecological sites of significance previously identified in 2000 were reviewed in 2011. Natural vegetation in areas acquired by the city since 2000 was also surveyed to identify any new key sites. In total seventy key sites that met the Waikato Regional Council Regional Policy Statement criteria for ecological significance were identified across Hamilton City. Of the original key sites, the total area covered by sites, average site size and overall quality of sites had increased between the 2000 and 2011 surveys. This was due to restoration efforts across the city by Hamilton City Council and the community. Vegetation restoration efforts have had other biodiversity and ecological benefits such as providing additional habitat for the city’s increasing tui population. Key sites are not spread evenly across the city or across landform types. Most key sites are either in gullies or adjoining the Waikato River. Less than 1% of urban alluvial plains and peat bogs are key sites. Two sites on private land have degraded and no longer meet the ecological significance criteria in 2011. The current survey utilised a standard methodology focused on vegetation types. There will be other significant sites not identified including sites with significant fauna values but a detailed and costly survey would be required to identify all such sites. The 1.5% of the city area covered by key sites is well below the 10% minimum recommended to prevent biodiversity decline in urban areas. Areas where vegetation restoration has begun in the city have the potential to expand existing key sites or develop new sites if council and community efforts continue in the future. The Council and its restoration partners should continue to seek ways of increasing native vegetation cover in Hamilton City and restoration of the distinctive gully landform remains the best option

Atmospheric pressure ionization and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry—together at last

The evolution of atmospheric pressure ionization techniques which are now routinely applied as liquid chromatograph/mass spectrometer (LC/MS) interfaces is described. Electrospray and related methods, as well as atmospheric pressure chemical ionization combined with the heated nebulizer interface, both began as specialized ionization techniques which became much more widely accepted when combined with tandem mass spectrometry. Today, both are widely used for quantitative and qualitative LC/MS and LC/MS/MS analyses. Important events in the development of these methods are described, along with key elements in the evolution of the ion source-to-vacuum interface techniques that contributed to their success

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON US AGRICULTURE

There is general consensus in the scientific literature that human-induced climate change has taken place and will continue to do so over the next century. The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concludes with “very high confidence” that anthropogenic activities such as fossil fuel burning and deforestation have affected the global climate. The AR4 also indicates that global average temperatures are expected to increase by another 1.1°C to 5.4°C by 2100, depending on the increase in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases that takes place during this time. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, temperature increases, altered precipitation patterns and other factors influenced by climate have already begun to impact U.S. agriculture. Climate change will continue to have significant effects on U.S. agriculture, water resources, land resources, and biodiversity in the future as temperature extremes begin exceeding thresholds that harm crop growth more frequently and precipitation and runoff patterns continue to change. In this study, we provide an assessment of the potential long-term implications of climate change on landowner decisions regarding land use, crop mix, and production practices in the U.S., combining a crop process model (Environmental Policy Integrated Climate model) and an economic model of the U.S. forestry and agricultural sector (Forest and Agricultural Sector Optimization Model). Agricultural producers have always faced numerous production and price risks, but forecasts of more rapid changes in climatic conditions in the future have raised concerns that these risks will increase in the future relative to historical conditions.climate change, crop yields, EPIC, FASOM, Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, International Relations/Trade, Land Economics/Use, Resource /Energy Economics and Policy, C61, Q18, Q54,

Indirect Reuse of Reclaimed Wastewater for Potable Supply: Regulatory Considerations

The winter of 2005-2006 in central NM was one of the driest on record and communities throughout the state are facing severe summer water shortages. Regardless of the lack of NMED policy, the resort community described above has begun construction on their indirect reuse system which is projected to be operational in September 2006. Other communities are evaluating similar solutions to their water crises. It is incumbent on the regulatory agencies to develop policies and regulations that will allow these communities to address their problems while protecting human health and the environment. This will require an extensive dialog between all participants including regulators, design engineers, water utility managers, and especially the public. This dialog has begun in NM, but likely will continue for years to come

Improving population estimates of Glossy Black-Cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus lathami) using photo-identification

Site-based population estimates of the threatened Glossy Black-Cockatoo ('GBC'; Calyptorhynchus lathami) are often calculated based on age and sex details from transect counts. However, these estimates do not distinguish individual birds, which may result in over- or under-estimation of the population. Two methods were used to estimate GBC populations in Mugii Murum-ban State Conservation Area, New South Wales: (1) the traditional transect method, and (2) a photographic method, which used plumage patterns (primarily the yellow facial feathers of females) and other supporting features to discriminate between foraging GBC family units. The second method has been used previously on Kangaroo Island, South Australia. A catalogue with a matrix of discriminating features was established based on the photographic method; this resulted in a higher population estimate than the transect method in two seasons (winter and spring), as well as providing an annual population estimate, and information on breeding dynamics and local movement of individual family units between foraging habitat. Recommendations for the application of the photographic method are provided. The method provides benefits at both the local scale (with more accurate site population estimates and information on population dynamics) and, with widespread adoption and national cataloguing, valuable knowledge on regional movement patterns and distribution

Water resources assessment of the Sapello River

The Sapello River originates in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in San Miguel County of northern New Mexico and flows east for 27.3 miles to Watrous, NM where it joins the Mora river. The Mora River is a tributary to the Canadian River. The Sapello River was the subject of an intensive three week study by the Water Resources 573, Field Methods class from the University of New Mexico in May and June, 2008. The main objective of the study was to conduct a stream assessment of the Sapello River that will serve as a baseline for future work.https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/wr_fmr/1001/thumbnail.jp

Water resources assessment in the greater Rio Casas Grandes Watershed

The Rio Casas Grandes watershed is located in northern Chihuahua, Mexico, on the eastern flank of the Sierra Madres. Like all arid desert regions, this watershed faces problems related to a lack of fresh water. Increasing populations, agriculture, and industry create a challenge to water managers and users in the watershed. Water shortages from drought combined with increased use have caused decreases in water tables as well as increases in the number of fallow fields in the lower reaches of the watershed. Poor land management practices combined with water shortages have the potential to threaten the livelihood of communities within this watershed. Students in the University of New Mexico\u27s (UNM) Water Resources Program (WRP) field course studied the greater Rio Casas Grandes watershed with a focus on the Rio Piedras Verdes sub-watershed. This course was designed for students to apply their knowledge and understanding of water resource issues to the water issues in the greater Rio Casas Grandes watershed. Due to the lack of quantitative data in the area, various types of quantitative field methods were performed to create a baseline of riparian health, water quality, and hydrology data. Interviews were conducted with professionals, academics, and farmers to provide first hand perspectives of the history, land use, and resource management within the Rio Casas Grandes watershed. The primary objectives for this course were to identify the water resource challenges in the Rio Casas Grandes watershed through both quantitative and qualitative assessments. Historical water use patterns, political, and cultural constraints were identified, along with the quantitative information needed to improve water management. Water quality of the region was assessed and water management practices of the Rio Casas Grandes watershed were compared with those of New Mexico.https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/wr_fmr/1000/thumbnail.jp

Older adult requirement data - what designers want!

It is well recognised that many products do not meet the requirements of the rapidly growing older adult population. The research described in this paper aims to provide designers with relevant and useable older adult requirement data. Data relating to older adults capabilities is being produced largely by the biomechanics community however, there is little evidence of its adoption in the design of everyday products. This project focused specifically on the design of everyday consumer packaging. Poorly designed packaging can present a significant barrier to achieving one of the most important basic activities of daily living - being able to feed oneself. Initially, a study of practicing packaging designers was conducted to establish how they currently design for older adults, what data they use and why. Relevant "new" design data was developed from biomechanical analysis undertaken in this project. This was presented to packaging designers in a series of interviews which established exactly what data designers want and the best formats for integration in the design process. This paper focuses on the findings of the initial study of practicing designers and the follow up interviews