The significance of macrophage polarization subtypes for animal models of tissue fibrosis and human fibrotic diseases.

The systemic and organ-specific human fibrotic disorders collectively represent one of the most serious health problems world-wide causing a large proportion of the total world population mortality. The molecular pathways involved in their pathogenesis are complex and despite intensive investigations have not been fully elucidated. Whereas chronic inflammatory cell infiltration is universally present in fibrotic lesions, the central role of monocytes and macrophages as regulators of inflammation and fibrosis has only recently become apparent. However, the precise mechanisms involved in the contribution of monocytes/macrophages to the initiation, establishment, or progression of the fibrotic process remain largely unknown. Several monocyte and macrophage subpopulations have been identified, with certain phenotypes promoting inflammation whereas others display profibrotic effects. Given the unmet need for effective treatments for fibroproliferative diseases and the crucial regulatory role of monocyte/macrophage subpopulations in fibrogenesis, the development of therapeutic strategies that target specific monocyte/macrophage subpopulations has become increasingly attractive. We will provide here an overview of the current understanding of the role of monocyte/macrophage phenotype subpopulations in animal models of tissue fibrosis and in various systemic and organ-specific human fibrotic diseases. Furthermore, we will discuss recent approaches to the design of effective anti-fibrotic therapeutic interventions by targeting the phenotypic differences identified between the various monocyte and macrophage subpopulations

Truffle-Associated Bacteria: Extrapolation from Diversity to Function

A third partner in the symbiosis between the fungus and plant root is represented by natural bacterial communities, which seem to play pivotal role in the complex biological processes of exchange involving nutrients and signaling from the soil hyphae, ectomycorrhizas, ascomata, and stromata. This review summarizes the recent evidence reported in literature showing that ascoma provides a habitat to complex microbial communities that are clearly differentiated from those of the soil and the ectomycorrhizosphere. Although the traditional plate isolation and the culture of microbes are indispensable for vegetative compatibility and/or functional assays, these techniques do not let a real in vivo picture the truffle ecosystem. Advent of the next-generation sequencing methods and recent advances in microarray technologies have increased culture-independent studies. Indeed, most microbiota remains uncultivable in laboratory conditions, and these novel technologies have greatly improved the understanding of microbial diversity and its functioning. This is particularly important for the ectomycorrhizal fungi of Tuber genus, since specific uncultivable-associated prokaryotes may play important roles in the biological system and ontogenetic cycle of these fungi. Success of truffle cultivation may be achieved with co-inoculum of specific bacteria with Tuber spp. upon establishment of commercial plantations; this is particularly relevant to the Tuber species with a high agronomic value

Laying the Foundations Edible Ectomycorrhizal Mushrooms

There are more than 1000 species of edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms with some commanding very high prices on international markets. Despite this, only the most sought-after species have attracted the attention of scientists. These include species of truffles (Tuber spp.), boletes (Boletus edulis sensu lato), and chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.). While some of this research has explored their cultivation, the vast majority conducted in the 1990s and 2000s has been simply directed towards basic taxonomic studies, and the search for new knowledge and understanding regarding their ecology and growth. This chapter provides a background on edible ectomycorrhizal mushroom research, discusses early methods used for the cultivation of ectomycorrhizal truffles and mushrooms, outlines the relationship between edible mycorrhizal mushrooms and other soil microorganisms, and generally lays the foundation for the chapters to come