Participatory evaluation of cattle fattening innovations of smallholder farmers in Gamogofa zone of southern Ethiopia

The study was conducted in Gamogofa zone, southern Ethiopia, located 445-505 km south of Addis Ababa. The area is semi-arid lowland with altitudes ranging from 746 to 1450 m asl and mean temperature ranges from 22 to 25 °C. The dominant farming system is mixed crop-livestock. Cattle, goats and poultry are the major livestock species, while maize, sorghum, teff, banana and mango are the major crops. Cattle fattening is an important undertaking and source of livelihoods. However, the fattening system is traditional low-input-low-output and producers are not benefiting much from the sector. This study evaluated the challenges and constraints, and cattle fattening innovations introduced through the participation of stakeholders in the study area. The study used focus group discussion, key informants interview, livestock commodity platforms and questionnaires for data collection. The major challenges and constraints identified are; a) feed and feeding related - lack of improved fodder and poor utilisation, lack of fodder conservation practices, poor natural grazing lands management and energy loss due to long distance grazing; lack of access for concentrate feed; b) cattle related - inappropriate cattle type for fattening; c) production related - long cycle fattening (> 8 months), poor housing and poor cattle management; d) market related - unorganised cattle marking, dominance of local markets with brokers which makes producers price takers, lack of market linkage; e) capacity related - lack of knowledge and skill on improved cattle fattening by producers, input providers and livestock extension staff. The following interventions were introduced: a) capacity related, which includes skill based training and coaching & mentoring of producers and livestock extension staff on improved cattle fattening, improved reproductive management and artificial insemination; b) fattening innovations which includes stall feeding instead of grazing, short cycle (3-4 months) multiple fattening per annum, improved on farm fodder production, improved fodder utilisation through chopping, fodder conservation through bag silage making & proper harvesting and storage of crop residues, initiation of commercial concentrate feed supplying business and use of concentrate supplementation, better animal selection from the market and deworming before fattening, establishment of fattened cattle marketing groups, and marketing linkage with buyers

Commercializing dairy and forage systems in Ethiopia: An innovation systems perspective

This paper presents and discusses the results of the analysis of Ethiopian dairy and forage innovation systems. Two factors triggered the need for understanding the innovation systems: Ethiopian dairy subsector has not been able to take-off despite decades of research and development efforts; and the context for the subsector development is changing. The purpose of the research was to identify organizational, institutional and policy options to facilitate market-driven and knowledge-based smallholder dairy development in the country. Specifically, the analysis looked at contextual factors determining opportunities and necessities for innovation; the key innovation systems actors, pattern of interaction between them; coordination mechanisms; and the subsector development policy and strategy. The investigation was based on a survey of actors and their roles and interactions, review of policy, and project documents and available empirical evidence. The research identified constraints and challenges relating to market, supportive services, interaction of actors, inter-organizational coordination, and gaps in the subsector development policy and strategy. Finally,options are identified that can enhance commercialization and innovation. The options include: strengthening dairy cooperatives with emphasis on their business-orientation, linking them, where appropriate, vertically to processors and input suppliers, and strategically linking dairy development intervention to informal markets through food security/food transfer programs and institutionalized school feeding programs; public support for the development of private service and pluralistic service delivery system, alongside strengthening public capacity for performing regulatory and quality assurance functions effectively; formulating national dairy development policy and strategy to ensure coordinated policy implementation on the ground; encouraging the integration of emerging dairy cooperatives at higher levels and capacity building to enable them to demand service, command accountability, and serve as a mouthpiece of producers; capitalizing on the on-going Business Process Re-engineering for revising the prevailing reward systems in public research and extension to encourage innovation and impactorientation; creating incentive system such as leverage fund and competitive grant to encourage intervention-based public–private innovation partnership; and strengthening dairy platform at woreda and/or milkshed level for achieving of better impact through continuous incremental improvements and to facilitate scaling out and up of successful experience to achieve wider impact and inform higher policymaking

Participatory smallholder dairy value chain development in Fogera woreda, Ethiopia: Experiences from IPMS project interventions

Market-oriented smallholder dairy in Fogera has an opportunity for growth because of growing urban population in the district itself as well as in the wider Bahr Dar–Gondar milkshed. IPMS in 2005 introduced a participatory market-oriented dairy value chain development approach with partner organizations. IPMS together with its partners also identified gaps in the dairy value chain through Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA) and also designed interventions involving key value chain actors. This approach included increased use of knowledge capturing and sharing by the extension services. Major production interventions were the development of communal grazing areas through clearance of noxious weed called Hygrophilla auriculata and introduction of area enclosure, backyard fodder development and increased use of rice crop residues. Input service supply interventions included community-based trypanosomosis control and bulls stations. IPMS and its partners also provided the required support for establishment of two milk processing marketing cooperatives. Communal grazing area development is now practised in 16 villages (PAs) and harvested biomass production was estimated at 7 to 11 t of DM/year. As a result of the cut-and-carry system, the proportion of legumes increased, thus improving its nutritive value. The increased availability of the rice straw and bran resulting from rice value chain development in Fogera has also impacted dairy production. Urea treatments of rice straw as well as supplementary feeding with rice bran were demonstrated in 13 PAs. An on-farm experiment conducted by an MSc student indicated doubling of daily milk yields. However, use of straw could be increased further if urea for the treatment of straw could be made available in the dry season. Trypanosomosis control introduced in infested areas has significantly reduced the number of infected animals and the program is now institutionalized by regional, district and NGO partners. The introduction of bull stations resulted in increased number of improved Fogera breed cows and crossbreed with Holstein-Frisians. However, the number of improved dairy cows is still low and the District should consider the recently introduced mass insemination approach with the help of hormones. Marketing and processing of milk in urban and peri-urban areas through formation of small cooperatives has started; however, impact is still limited due to lack of business orientation, and alternative marketing outlets for individual producers. While some linkages were made with the larger Bahr Dar milkshed, more attention needs to be paid to this market once milk production increases. A household survey conducted in 2009, which assessed the combined impact of all interventions, showed significant differences in milk quantities sold by adopter and non-adopter households in the urban areas and doubling of butter production/sales in the rural areas. It is noted that this additional butter sales benefits rural women since they manage the production and sale of butter

Opportunities for exploiting underutilized feed resources to enhance market-oriented animal production in North-western Ethiopia

This study was conducted in Metema district, Amhara Region, Ethiopia to characterize the existing feed resources and recommend their enhanced utilization for animal production. The major feeds were pasture (55.7%), crop residues (20.7%), stubble (14.3%) and hay (9.3%). The estimated annual feed supply was 833,531.2 tons DM and 94% came from natural pasture. About 33 herbaceous species and 20 woody species that are highly desirable, desirable and less desirable were identified. The total dry matter biomass and the high proportion of desirable species could be effectively utilized to support market-oriented ruminant production in the district and beyond

Transhumance cattle production system in North Gondar, Amhara region, Ethiopia: is it sustainable?

The study was carried out in three highland woredas (districts) of Chilga, Dembia and Gondar Zuria in north Gondar Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia. These woredas were purposively selected because of their long experience in transhumance cattle production system. The objectives of the study were to characterize the transhumance cattle production system, identify the major constraints and forward appropriate developmental interventions for the future. Informal and formal surveys were employed to collect qualitative and quantitative data. From these woredas, a total of 180 representative households from 9 rural kebeles were selected using systematic random sampling methods. Semi-structured questionnaires and topical guidelines (checklists) were used to collect data. The results revealed that livestock production system in the highlands is characterized by mixed crop–livestock production and rainy season transhumance production system. Transhumance production system was practised mainly into the lowland areas. The major reasons why cattle were trekked to the lowlands were availability of feed (99.2%), free land for stocking (92.4%), low disease risk (25.0%) and availability of non-waterlogged areas (0.8%). Preferred locations were Metema (84.0%), Armachiho (9.6%), and Quara (4.0%) woredas, while very low percentages considered Alefa and Chilga woredas (0.8% each). The months when cattle movement started were May (69.5%), June (29.6%) and April (0 .8%), and the months of returned home were October (45.8%) and September (35.9%). Three major cattle trekking routes were identified, and the selection of routes depended on distance, availability of forage and non-crop covered areas. The first destination is Agamwuha kebele (Lemlem Terara) in Metema district, irrespective of the routes followed. About 60.3% of the cattle population of the three woredas was trekked to the lowlands during the rainy season. The number of cattle owners and the size of cattle population involved in one group were 4.3 ± 0.18 farmers and 58.8 ± 3.89 heads, respectively. The average daily milk off-take, lactation yield and lactation length of indigenous cows in the three studied areas was about 2.0 ± 0.07 litres, 540 ± 21.05 litres, and 8.9 ± 0.16 months, respectively. The mean age at first calving (AFC) and calving interval (CI) was 5.2 ± 0.30 years and 19.0 ± 0.38 months, respectively, while mean calf crop was 7.4 ± 0.47 heads. The average weaning age of calves was almost one year, being 11.6 ± 0.26 months. In the lowlands, milking, butter making and selling of dairy products were performed only by male herders. In the highland areas, butter (95.6%) was one of the most important saleable dairy products followed by raw milk (18.4%), fermented milk (ergo) and buttermilk (6.1%). However, during the transhumance period, butter (95.3%) was the major marketable commodity followed by raw milk (61.3%), buttermilk (18.9%) and fermented milk (14.2%). Highlanders also market dry cows, oxen, heifers and young bullocks during their stay inthe lowlands. The major constraints identified by the highlanders were conflict with the lowlanders, cattle theft, human and livestock diseases, and lack of markets. Most of the respondents (86.3%) estimated that the trend of transhumance has been increasing due to feed shortage (50.4%), expansion of crop cultivation (27.4%) and increasing cattle population (21.2%) in the highlands. Human population has also been increasing both in the highlands and lowlands, and the current infrastructure development in the lowlands (tarmac road, electricity, phone etc.) will further encourage more migration to the lowlands. The conflict over resources will intensify, probably leading to the demise of this production system unless alterative development strategies, such as intensification of the production system in the highlands and development of feed conservation and marketing in the lowlands are devised

Rangeland condition and feed resources in Metema district, North Gondar Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia

The study was conducted in 2006/07 in Metema district, North Gondar Zone of Amhara region, Ethiopia, with the objectives to characterize the existing rangeland and to determine the feed resources utilization practices, to assess the natural grazing land condition based on herbaceous, woody and soil condition and to evaluate the chemical composition of major livestock feed resources of the area. A single-visit formal survey, group discussions and visual observations are used to collect the primary information and secondary sources are also used in livestock feed resources assessment of the district. A total of 140 respondents from 7 kebeles were selected for interviewing by stratified random sampling techniques. To assess the range conditions, the samples were collected by classifying the district into cotton–livestock and sesame–livestock farming systems. Within a farming system, grazing lands were further stratified into three sampling areas: communal, road side and enclosure grazing areas. In each of the range sites a sampling block of 4 km × 1 km was demarcated and this was further stratified into four sampling plots of equal size. In each of the plot, a belt transects of 50 m × 4 m was laid out randomly. Then, the parameter used for (herbaceous, soil and woody) grass species composition, basal cover, litter cover, soil erosion, soil compaction, seedling count, age distribution and woody density enumeration, canopy cover and hedging were determined. For the height classes 1–3 m, >3–4.5 m and >4.5 m was used. Feed samples were stratified by season and types and subjected to chemical analysis for determination of DM, ash, CP, ADF, ADL and IVDMD. About 83% of the inhabitants in the district practice mixed crop–livestock farming system. The mean family size is 5.31 ± 0.20 persons per household, while the average land holding is 6.78 ± 1.33 ha/household. The mean livestock holding per household is 12.52 ± 6.23 TLU, and is composed of cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys and camels. Natural pasture (55.7%), crop residues (20.7%), stubble (14.3%) and hay (9.3%) are the major feed resources for dry season whereas in the wet season only natural pasture serves as feed resource. The total estimated DM yield of grazing land and stubble is 780,750 and 51,954 t DM per annum, respectively. The total estimated available feed supply is 833,531.2 t DM per annum. Of the identified 33 herbaceous species, 14 and 19 are different grasses and non-grass species. From the non-grass species 6 legumes and 13 sedges and other species are recorded. Of the grasses, 23.07%, 38.46% and 30.77% are highly desirable, desirable and less desirable, respectively. Of the identified 20 woody species, 15%, 35%, and 50% are highly desirable, desirable and less desirable, respectively. The largest proportion of woody vegetation is contributed by different species of acacia (20%)and commbretum (10%). Trees and shrubs grouped within the height class of >1–3 m constituted 41.2% in communal grazing areas, 38.5% in road side grazing and 33.3% in enclosures. Range condition assessment factors such as basal cover, litter cover, grass species composition, woody vegetation density, canopy cover, hedging effect, age distribution and total condition score are significant (P<0.05) in communal grazing areas of the sesame–livestock than in the cotton–livestock farming system. The communal grazing areas have significantly (P< 0.05) higher values of grass species composition, basal cover, litter cover, age distribution, and woody species density score, than the road side grazing areas and lower (P<0.05) than the enclosure grazing areas. The dry matter biomass of grass, highly desirable, desirable species of grasses and legumes and others obtained in the same farming system were significantly (P<0.05) higher than the road side grazing types and lower (P<0.05) in total grass biomass, highly desirable grass, and total biomass than enclosure areas. The total dry matter biomass, dry matter biomass of grass and highly desirable grasses, and legumes are significantly (P<0.05) higher in the enclosure followed by communal grazing and the road side grazing areas. In general, there is low feed resources conservation and utilization and very poor traditional grazing land management system in Metema. The abundant feed resources in the wet season are wasted. In the dry season, grasses are turned to ash by wild and man-made fire in the process of forest honey harvesting and crop land cleaning. As a result, the livestock populations seriously suffer from the critical feed shortage during the long dry season.The rangeland, species composition and biomass production are also affected by human, livestock and natural factors (biotic and abiotic factors). The human population of the district has increased due to settlement programs, investment induced settlers, expanding crop cultivation and have increased the pressure on the rangelands and natural grazing areas. Bush encroachment and overgrazing are also serious problems. Shifting cultivation practice is also contributing to the increased bush encroachment. The seasonal movement and transhumant livestock production by highlanders in adjacent districts also increases the grazing intensity. Absence of adequate baseline information about the rangeland resources, unsynchronized seasonal availability of feed resources and cropland encroachment to the rangeland are some of the main constraints of the district, and studies on rangeland management systems and improved livestock production should be initiated

Moving Ethiopian smallholder dairy along a sustainable commercialization path: missing links in the innovation systems

Ethiopian needs to achieve accelerated agricultural development along a sustainable commercialization path to alleviate poverty and ensure overall national development. In this regard, sustainable commercial of smallholder dairying provides a viable and growing opportunity; with deliberate, appropriate and sustained policy support. A recent empirical analysis concludes however, that Ethiopian smallholder dairy sub-sector has not been able to take-off despite decades of development interventions. The current paper looks into this paradox of Ethiopian smallholder dairy development; identifies and discusses the implications of emerging opportunities and challenges for the sub-sector development; and explores strategic options for the sub-sector take-off. This paper argues that the impact of the decades of efforts for the sub-sector developments have been hampered, among others, by disconnects in the dairy innovation systems. There are missing/weak linkages between diverse knowledge sources, technological and non-technological innovations, development interventions and local context, production and market, R&D services and development challenges, public and private efforts, and between policymaking and development practice. Some strategic options are identified along with implementation modalities. The recommendations forwarded to get Ethiopian smallholder dairying moving along a sustainable commercialization path encompass: improving economic incentives to encourage innovation; organizing dairy producers and linking them with vertically coordinated value chain; pursuing holistic approach to achieving sustainable technological innovation to increase supply response; supporting private sector development and promoting public-private partnership, creatively using the expanding ICT infrastructure as a means for facilitating multi-stakeholder interaction and knowledge management; formulating appropriate and adaptive policy for the sub-sector development; along with complementary national strategy capable of providing clear roadmap; guiding spatially targeted investment and intervention decisions; and defining principles for pragmatic participation, inter-organizational interaction and coordination. Finally, strengthening commodity-based local - woreda/milkshed- innovation systems capacity with value chain perspective is underlined. The later provides a practical option to stimulating process-driven collective experiential learning for achievement of better impact through continuous incremental improvement/innovation, and facilitates scaling up and-out of successful experiences to achieve wider socio-economic impact and inform policymaking