Enzymatic hydrolysis for the removal of 3- monochloropropanediol esters in edible oils using Candida rugosa lipase in the presence of deep eutectic solvents and nanocellulose

3-monochloropropanediol ester (3-MCPDE) is identified as a food-borne contaminant in edible oils and are classified as a possible carcinogen. This study reports an efficient enzymatic technique for the removal of 3-MCPDE from extra virgin olive oil (EVO) using Candida rugosa lipase (CRL) as the biocatalyst in the presence of choline chloride and fructose-based natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES) and nanocellulose (NC) extracted from almond shells. The validity of the method was confirmed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) showing adequate precision with relative standard deviation values ≤ 2.37%. The quantification and detection limit are within the permissible levels of 3-MCPD in edible oils. Under optimized conditions of 30 min at 90 °C with 60 µL of phenylboronic acid (PBA), the enzymatic hydrolysis resulted in the removal of 79.8% of spiked 3-MCPD in EVO. No adverse effects of the EVO were detected from this technique with respect to the oil quality testing. The application of DESs and NCs as the support material for the CRL biocatalyst for the removal of 3-MCPDE has yet to be explored. This could have a significant impact on the edible oil industry for producing oils of higher quality free from 3-MCPDE

Physicochemical characteristics of bionanocomposites, polycaprolactone/starch/cocoa pod husk microfibrillated cellulose

The development of biocomposites has increased due to their biodegradability,renewability, and high specific strength which are comparable with other polymer composites. Even though, the conventional composites are still in high demand due to their durability, however, it cannot decompose and the accumulation of these wastes for a long period is harmful to the living things and to the environment. Therefore, in this study the biodegradable polymers, polycaprolactone (PCL) and starch were selected in this study to synthesize bionanocomposite incorporated with microfibrillated cellulose (MFC). The microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) was extracted from cocoa pod husk (CPH–MFC) and was mixed with PCL and starch, where its amount was varied between 3-10wt%. The prepared bionanocomposites were characterised in terms of its water uptake rate, and structural and thermal properties using Fourier transform infared spectroscopy (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The morphology analysis using scanning electron microscope (SEM) shows that the CPH–MFC extracted was in nanoscale size. The percentage of water uptake of the prepared bionanocomposites increased with the amount of CPH–MFC. Meanwhile, the FTIR spectra of the prepared bionanocomposites showed almost similar characteristic peaks with the FTIR spectra of pure PCL. DSC analysis showed that the melting temperature increased as the amount of CPH–MFC increased. This study justifies that the incorporation of CPH–MFC with the PCL–starch matrix improved the water uptake rate and thermal properties but did not show significant changes to the structure of PCL

Nanocellulose and natural deep eutectic solvent as potential biocatalyst system toward enzyme immobilization

This study reports the immobilization of Candida Rugosa lipase (CRL) onto nanocellulose (NC) extracted from almond shells using p-toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA) and sulfuric acid (ASS) with sugar-based natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES1a) as a biocatalyst system. The properties of both immobilized lipases were studied and compared to the free enzyme counterpart. Under optimized conditions (2 h, 40 ºC and pH 7.0), the immobilized CRL-PTSA-NADES1a and CRL-ASS-NADES1a gave a maximum specific activity of 4.9 U mg−1 and 6.57 U mg−1, respectively, compared to the free CRL (4.52 U mg−1). Both immobilized CRL showed better thermal stability, high catalytic activity and reusability up to 7 consecutive cycles. The half- life of the immobilized lipase was 14 ∼ 16 days greater than free lipase (27 days). The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area of NC-ASS (20.76 m2 g−1) is higher compared to NC-PTSA (4.81 m2 g−1). The functional groups and morphology of the free and immobilized CRL were further determined by Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). These findings revealed that the immobilized CRL onto NCs and NADES1a as green materials and solvent, respectively had higher lipase immobilization efficiency and stability for the treatment of food contaminants in oils in order to satisfy increasing commercial demands in the oil industry

3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD): a review on properties, occurrence, mechanism of formation, toxicity, analytical approach and mitigation strategy

3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) is one of the most common food contaminants in processed oils which forms mostly during the deodorization step of edible oil refining process. It has been detected in many types of food products such as infant formula, margarine, bread and soy sauce, which could result in kidney and testicular damage. The presence of 3-MCPD contaminant have been occurring for more a decade, which warrants a maximum permissible amount of 2 µg/kg body weight in food products in national and international levels. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview in the past 12 years on its physicochemical properties, occurrence, potential precursors and formation mechanism of 3-MCPD in foodstuffs. The toxicity, its quantification methods and mitigation strategy are also reviewed with an emphasis on the applicability, efficiency and issues encountered during the analysis. This review provides an elucidation regarding 3-MCPDEs and their food safety implications

Role of ionic liquids in the processing of lignocellulosic biomass

This chapter discusses the treatment of palm oil empty fruit bunch using ionic liquids (ILs) pretreatment. By mixing IL and cellulase enzyme (IL-E) in a single pot, the empty fruit bunch (EFB) was pretreated with simultaneous fermentation. Choline acetate [Ch][Ac], which has excellent biological compatibility and renewability, has been used for pretreatment. Chemical analysis, electron scanning microscopy (SEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to characterize the EFB and its hydrolysate. After 24 and 48 h of enzymatic hydrolysis, sugar yield improved from 0.058 g/g EFB in the crude (untreated) sample to 0.283 and 0.62 06 g/g in the IL-E phase. EFB hydrolysate demonstrates suitability for the production of ethanol (EtOH) with a yield of 0.275 g EtOH/g EFB in the presence of [Ch][Ac] without additional nutrients, compared to the low yield without IL pretreatment

Role of green nanomaterials for 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol ester (3-MCPDE) reduction

This chapter discusses the promising green nanomaterials synthesis for 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol ester (3-MCPDE) reduction. Toxic chemicals such as 3-MCPDE are classified as potential carcinogen and have been shown to affect kidney function and male fertility. It was reported to be found in food such as soy sauce, bread and baby milk formula. More recently, this compound has been highly found in refined edible oils. One of the techniques to breakdown 3-MCPDE is enzymatic hydrolysis. However, enzymes possess poor reusability and recovery which are often prone to denaturation. Thus, immobilization of enzyme using green nanomaterials is the best technique to enhance the enzymatic activity for reducing 3-MCPDE. Green nanomaterial and green chemistry techniques can play a crucial role in the enzymatic application. This method paves the way for future research to learn more about the effects of green immobilization and their interactions for 3-MCPD reduction which can impact the food industry and hold a great promise for edible oil products with a better quality that is safe to consume by society

Surface functionalisation of microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) of cocoa pod husk with Ƴ-Methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MPS)

Significant growing on environmental awareness has led researchers to study the surface functionalisation of cellulose nanofiber using natural renewable resources. This study aims to improve the percentage swelling of microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) of cocoa pod husks, crops-by product with Ƴ- methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MPS). Investigation on the effect of cocoa pod husk (CPH) microfibrillated cellulose (MFC-CPH) amount, MPS amount, MPS concentration and the reaction time to the percentage of swelling property of MFC-CPH treated with MPS was carried out. Composition amount of CPH -MFC, MPS, MPS concentration and the reaction time were varied from range of 0.5-6 gram, 1-9 mL, 5-15 w/w % and 2-24 hours respectively. Based on evaluation of percentage swelling obtained, it showed that the surface hydrophobicity of MFC-CPH treated with MPS could be increased due to the chemical bonds interaction that formed during silane treatment. The lowest percentage swelling of treated MFC-CPH-MPS is 14.96 % and the highest is 94.87 %. The untreated and treated MFC-CPH were then observed using fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) for any change of structural and morphology. FT-IR results shows that there is reduction of OH groups in cellulose and addition of Si groups after silane treatment. There is also a change on the surface of MFC-CPH fibers after silane treatment as MFC-CPH fibers surface become rough due to deposited of MPS on MFC-CPH fibers

Effect of y-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MPS) and tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) towards preparation of oil absorbent foams from polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) reinforced with microfibrillated cellulose (MFC)

Increasing usage of foams in various industry sectors had causing serious disposal problems once it reaches the end of its life-cycle. Herein, PVA-MFC foam was prepared by freeze-drying using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) as a reinforced material from sugarcane bagasse (SCB). In this study, the PVA-MFC foam was chemically silylated with Ƴ- methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MPS) and tetraethoxysilane (TEOS). The wetting ability and mechanical strength of the silylated 2,20PVA-MFC foam was greatly enhanced compared with unmodified 2,20PVA-MFC foam. The silane chemicals (MPS and TEOS) had been confirmed grafted on 2,20PVA-MFC foam due to the presence of Si-C and Si-O-C stretching vibration as showed in Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra and cloud-like coating of porous pore was observed in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images. The silylated 2,20PVA-MFC foam (MPS and TEOS) exhibited a series of desirable properties such as lower swelling ratio and high absorption capacity of solvents and oils but had low thermal stability in thermogravimetric (TGA) analysis. The characterization of 2,20PVA-MFC foam using TEOS was further investigated. A significant difference in morphology was clearly observed between the unmodified and silylated 2,20PVA-MFC-TEOS foam through field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) images. The X-ray photoelectron (XPS) analysis of silylated 2,20PVA-MFC-TEOS foam confirmed the presence of C, O and trace amount of Si elements. These synthesized 2,20PVA-MFC foam could be a promising material for broad range of polymer foam applications

Surface functionalisation of Microfibrillated Cellulose (MFC) of cocoa pod husk with Ƴ-Methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MPS)

Significant growing on environmental awareness has led researchers to study the surface functionalisation of cellulose nanofiber using natural renewable resources. This study aims to improve the percentage swelling of microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) of cocoa pod husks, crops-by product with Ƴ- methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MPS). Investigation on the effect of cocoa pod husk (CPH) microfibrillated cellulose (MFC-CPH) amount, MPS amount, MPS concentration and the reaction time to the percentage of swelling property of MFC-CPH treated with MPS was carried out. Composition amount of CPH -MFC, MPS, MPS concentration and the reaction time were varied from range of 0.5-6 gram, 1-9 mL, 5-15 w/w % and 2-24 hours respectively. Based on evaluation of percentage swelling obtained, it showed that the surface hydrophobicity of MFC-CPH treated with MPS could be increased due to the chemical bonds interaction that formed during silane treatment. The lowest percentage swelling of treated MFC-CPH-MPS is 14.96 % and the highest is 94.87 %. The untreated and treated MFC-CPH were then observed using fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) for any change of structural and morphology. FT-IR results shows that there is reduction of OH groups in cellulose and addition of Si groups after silane treatment. There is also a change on the surface of MFC-CPH fibers after silane treatment as MFC-CPH fibers surface become rough due to deposited of MPS on MFC-CPH fibers