Plasticity in flower size as an adaptation to variation in pollinator specificity

1. Mutualisms, including plant-pollinator interactions, are an important component of ecosystems. 2. Plants can avoid the costs of variation in pollinator benefit by maintaining specificity. 3. We hypothesise a novel mechanism to ensure specificity, which takes advantage of the cognitive abilities of specific pollinators to exclude non-specific flower visitors. 4. Inflorescences of the tropical vine genusPsiguriaproduce flowers at regular intervals, with subsequent flowers smaller than predecessors. 5. The principle pollinators,Heliconiusspp., possess an excellent spatial memory. 6. Therefore, decreasing flower size may ensure specific pollination: onceHeliconiusindividuals have learnt the location of an inflorescence they will return, but inconspicuous flowers should reduce visits by non-specific pollinators with poorer spatial memories. 7. We tested the predictions of this hypothesis with field experiments in Panama. We confirmed that flowers on inflorescences are smaller than their predecessors. 8. Paired experiments showed that larger flowers attracted more pollinators and that the presence of an initial large flower increased subsequent visitation byHeliconiusspp. to small flowers, indicating learning behaviour. 9. These results suggest that learning behaviour and decreasing flower size maintain visits from specific pollinators while reducing those from non-specific pollinators. We propose this as a novel mechanism for promoting pollinator specificity and discuss its ecological significance

The diversification of Heliconius butterflies: what have we learned in 150 years?

Research into Heliconius butterflies has made a significant contribution to evolutionary biology. Here, we review our understanding of the diversification of these butterflies, covering recent advances and a vast foundation of earlier work. Whereas no single group of organisms can be sufficient for understanding life's diversity, after years of intensive study, research into Heliconius has addressed a wide variety of evolutionary questions. We first discuss evidence for widespread gene flow between Heliconius species and what this reveals about the nature of species. We then address the evolution and diversity of warning patterns, both as the target of selection and with respect to their underlying genetic basis. The identification of major genes involved in mimetic shifts, and homology at these loci between distantly related taxa, has revealed a surprising predictability in the genetic basis of evolution. In the final sections, we consider the evolution of warning patterns, and Heliconius diversity more generally, within a broader context of ecological and sexual selection. We consider how different traits and modes of selection can interact and influence the evolution of reproductive isolation.RMM is funded by a Junior Research Fellowship at King’s College, Cambridge. KMK is supported by the Balfour Studentship, University of Cambridge, SHMa by a Research Fellowship at St John's College, Cambridge, and SHMo by a Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851. Our work on Heliconius has been additionally supported by the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (France), the Biology and Biotechnology Research Council (UK), the British Ecological Society, the European Research Council, the Natural Environment Research Council (UK), and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute.This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from Wiley via http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jeb.1267

Behavioural and ecological interactions between Heliconius butterflies, their predators and host plants

Heliconius butterflies exhibit Müllerian mimicry, in which two or more unpalatable species share a mutual advantage from having a common conspicuous colour pattern. These tropical butterflies have impressive visual signals, which are under conflicting selection pressures, as they are used in choosing potential mates and defending against visual predators through aposematic coloration. As both selection pressures are likely to be strong, different elements of the signal might be adapted for different receivers. Here, I combine sensory ecology with behavioural ecology to explain Heliconius colours signals of different co-mimic pairs. I explore how mimicry in Heliconius is perceived both from the perspective of predators and conspecifics, using visual abilities of both butterflies and birds. The different visual sensitivities of avian predators, H. erato females and males make them to perceive Heliconius coloration in different ways. My work suggests that having the ability to see in the ultra-violet light range enables higher discrimination between co-mimics both for birds and butterflies. Heliconius warning colours transmit a consistent signal across time of the day and habitat in a tropical forest for avian vision. In contrast through Heliconius vision there is evidence that patterns are more conspicuous in their own habitats. All these traits could facilitate communication between co-mimics and reduce the cost of confusion in courtship while still maintaining the advantages of Müllerian mimicry against predation. I conducted a field experiment to show that attack rates on a novel distasteful butterfly reduced over time, suggesting that Heliconius wing colouration can enhance aversion among predators. Finally, I have shown that Heliconius butterflies use leaf shape as a cue to approach their host plants, demonstrating the potential for Heliconius to drive negative frequency dependent selection on the leaf shape of their Passiflora host plants. Overall these results highlight ecological interactions between Heliconius butterflies, their predators and host plants.CAPES Brazil Cambridge Trus

Secrectory structures in the aerial vegetative organs of Passiflora alata Curtis and P.edulis Sims (passifloraceae) with emphasis on in situ localization of bioactive compounds

Orientador: Marilia de Moraes CastroDissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de BiologiaResumo: Esta tese tem como principal objetivo contribuir para o conhecimento morfológico das glândulas dos órgãos vegetativos aéreos de Passiflora alata Curtis e P. edulis Sims e localização dos compostos bioativos responsáveis pela reconhecida importância farmacológica apresentada por estas espécies. Técnicas em microscopias fotônica e eletrônica de varredura são utilizadas na observação da morfologia das glândulas, visualização dos compostos fenólicos presentes no interior destas estruturas e exame da micromorfologia dos cristais; a espectrometria por energia dispersiva de raios-x é empregada na identificação dos átomos constituintes dos cristais. Testes histoquímicos convencionais e de fluorescência são aplicados nas glândulas para a caracterização in situ do exsudato; estes procedimentos são acoplados à análise do exsudato em espectrometria de massas (MS). Os principais pontos abordados na tese são: a validação das glândulas presentes nos pecíolos e lâminas foliares de ambas as espécies como nectários extraflorais (NEF); identificação das glândulas estipulares de P. alata como coléteres; a localização de alcalóides e flavonóides no interior dos idioblastos dispersos nos tecidos vasculares, majoritariamente no floema, do caule e da folha destas espécies. A morfologia, coloração e variação no número de NEF peciolares de P. alata indicam que estas glândulas atuam como egg mimics, estruturas miméticas de ovos de borboletas Heliconiini - principal consumidor de espécies de Passiflora - que previnem a oviposição destes insetos. Ainda, estas glândulas apresentam idioblastos dispersos no parênquima cujo conteúdo é composto por terpenos e, neste contexto, a morfologia crateriforme pode propiciar um microambiente de contenção de voláteis nos NEF peciolares de P. alata. A análise dos cristais presentes no parênquima nectarífero dos NEF peciolares de ambas as espécies identificou cristais do tipo agregado cristalífero, cuja composição é de oxalato de cálcio, e areia cristalífera, constituída por átomos de ferro, em P. alata e drusas de oxalato de cálcio em P. edulis. O registro de ferro armazenado fora do cloroplasto é inédito. A análise química qualitativa do exsudato proveniente dos NEF peciolares e laminares de ambas as espécies evidenciou açúcares e, em menor concentração relativa, flavonóides e alcalóides - exceto nos NEF peciolares de P. alata. A detecção de diferentes tipos de açúcares no exsudato das glândulas estipulares de P. alata corrobora sua identificação como coléteres. Em ambas as espécies, a localização dos idioblastos dispersos nos tecidos vasculares contendo alcalóides e flavonóides sugere uma translocação destes compostos pelos elementos de tubo crivado para diferentes órgãos e acúmulo nos idioblastos. A técnica usada para estimar a atividade antioxidante de compostos in vitro com o uso do reagente DPPH foi adaptada para a observação in situ desta reação, evidenciando esta atividade nos idioblastos contendo flavonóides em ambas as espécies. Os estudos histoquímicos aliados às análises do néctar em MS sugerem uma relação entre as diferentes concentrações de alcalóides e flavonóides no interior e fora da planta, em que a alta concentração destes compostos apresenta efeito dissuasivo, comprometendo o desenvolvimento de herbívoros, enquanto a baixa concentração não acomete o crescimento dos coletores mutualistas. Este trabalho inova ao integrar técnicas distintas na caracterização das estruturas secretoras e do exsudato por elas produzidoAbstract: The purpose of the present study is to contribute to the morphological knowledge of the glands present in aerial vegetative organs of Passiflora alata Curtis e P. edulis Sims and in situ localization of bioactive compounds responsible for the recognized pharmacological importance of both species. Scanning electron and photonic microscopy techniques are applied to the observation of glands morphology, visualization of phenolic compounds into these structures and the examination of crystals micromorphology; the energy dispersive xray spectrometry is applied to identify the constituent atoms of crystals. Conventional histochemical tests and fluorescence are applied to the glands for in situ characterization of exudate; these procedures have been coupled with the analysis of exudate in mass spectrometry (MS). The main points of this research are the validation of the glands present in the petiole and leaf blade of both species as extrafloral nectaries (EFN) and of stipular glands of P. alata as colleters; the in situ localization of alkaloids and flavonoids within the idioblast scattered through the vascular tissue, mainly in the phloem, in stem and leaves of these species. The morphology, color and variation in number of petiolar ENF of P. alata indicate that these glands act as egg mimics, mimetic structures of the Heliconiini butterflies eggs - the main consumer of Passiflora species - that prevent oviposition of these insects. Nevertheless, these glands possess idioblasts that synthesize terpenes. In this context, the crateriform morphology of petiolar ENF of P. alata may provide a microenvironment for holding volatile. The analysis of crystals present in the petiolar nectariferous parenchyma of both species identified aggregate crystals, whose composition is calcium oxalate, and crystal sand, consisting of iron atoms in P. alata, and druses of calcium oxalate in P. edulis. This is the first record of iron stored outside the chloroplast. The qualitative chemical analysis of the exudate from petiolar and laminar ENF of both species detected sugar and lower concentrations of flavonoids and alkaloids - except in the petiolar ENF of P. alata. The identification of different types of sugars found in stipular glands exudate of P. alata confirms its identification as colleters. In both species, the location of idioblasts containing alkaloids and flavonoids scattered through the vascular tissue suggest a translocation of those compounds through sieve-tube members of phloem to different organs and their consequent accumulation inside the idioblasts. The technique used in order to estimate the antioxidant activity of compounds in vitro with the aid of DPPH reagent was adapted for in situ observation of this reaction, showing this activity in idioblasts synthesizing flavonoids in both species. Histochemical studies coupled with nectar analysis in MS suggest a relationship between the different concentrations of alkaloids and flavonoids inside and outside the plant, where high concentration of these compounds has a deterrent effect, endangering the development of herbivores, while low concentration does not affect the mutualistic collectors growth. This work innovates by integrating different techniques for the characterization of the secretory structures and the exudate produced by themMestradoBiologia VegetalMestre em Biologia Vegeta