Public health expenditure, governance and health outcomes in Malaysia

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), government plays a crucial role in providing quality life for its citizens through good health system. There has been less attention given in analysing the relationship between government expenditure, governance and health outcomes particularly in developing countries. This paper aims to study the impact of public health expenditure and governance on health outcomes in Malaysia. An Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) cointegration framework has been used to analyse data from 1984 to 2009. The results based on the bounds testing procedure show that a stable, long-run relationship exists between health outcomes and their determinants; namely income level, public health expenditure, corruption and government stability. The results also reveal that public health expenditure and corruption affect long- and short run health outcomes in Malaysia. The findings are important to the policy makers in making decisions to improve the citizens’ quality of life. We suggest the Ministry of Health of Malaysia to conduct more consultations with other ministries and other stakeholders in health services as to identify the needs and emphasize on the importance of health program to the society. At the same time, attention should be given to reduce or eliminate the corruption rate as it has adverse effects on the country

Effect of curcumin, piperine and their combination on open field performance task.

<p>Values are expressed as mean ± SEM. For statistical significance,</p>a<p>P<0.05 as compared to sham group;</p>b<p>P<0.05 as compared to OBX control;</p>c<p>P<0.05 as compared to OBX+C1;</p>d<p>P<0.05 as compared to OBX+C2;</p>e<p>P<0.05 as compared to OBX+P (One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test). OBX, Olfactory Bulbectomy; C1, curcumin (100 mg/kg); C2, curcumin (200 mg/kg); C3, curcumin (400 mg/kg); P, piperine (20 mg/kg); I, imipramine (10 mg/kg).</p

Effect of curcumin, piperine and their co-administration on mitochondrial enzyme complex I and II activities.

<p>Values are expressed as mean <i>±</i> SEM. For statistical significance, ^a<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to sham group; ^b<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX control;^c<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+C1; ^d<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+C2; ^e<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+P (One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test). OBX, Olfactory Bulbectomy; C1, curcumin (100 mg/kg); C2, curcumin (200 mg/kg); C3, curcumin (400 mg/kg); P, piperine (20 mg/kg); I, imipramine (10 mg/kg).</p

Effect of curcumin, piperine and their co-administration on lipid peroxidation (MDA), reduced glutathione (GSH), nitrite concentration and catalase enzymes levels.

<p>Values are expressed as mean ± SEM. For statistical significance,</p>a<p>P<0.05 as compared to sham group;</p>b<p>P<0.05 as compared to OBX control;</p>c<p>P<0.05 as compared to OBX+C1;</p>d<p>P<0.05 as compared to OBX+C2;</p>e<p>P<0.05 as compared to OBX+P (One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test). OBX, Olfactory Bulbectomy; C1, curcumin (100 mg/kg); C2, curcumin (200 mg/kg); C3, curcumin (400 mg/kg); P, piperine (20 mg/kg); I, imipramine (10 mg/kg).</p

Effects of curcumin, piperine and their combination on sucrose preference test (SPT).

<p>Values are expressed as mean <i>±</i> SEM. For statistical significance, ^a<i>P</i><0.05 as compared to sham group; ^b<i>P</i><0.05 as compared to OBX control;^c<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+C1; ^d<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+C2; ^e<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+P (One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test). OBX, Olfactory Bulbectomy; C1, curcumin (100 mg/kg); C2, curcumin (200 mg/kg); C3, curcumin (400 mg/kg); P, piperine (20 mg/kg); I, imipramine (10 mg/kg).</p

Experimental protocol design for olfactory bulbectomy experimental model.

<p>Experimental protocol design for olfactory bulbectomy experimental model.</p

Effect of curcumin, piperine and their co-administration on immobility period.

<p>Values are expressed as mean <i>±</i> SEM. For statistical significance, ^a<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to sham group; ^b<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX control;^c<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+C1; ^d<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+C2; ^e<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+P (One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test). OBX, Olfactory Bulbectomy; C1, curcumin (100 mg/kg); C2, curcumin (200 mg/kg); C3, curcumin (400 mg/kg); P, piperine (20 mg/kg); I, imipramine (10 mg/kg).</p

Representative photomicrographs of cerebral cortex (A) and hippocampal CA1 region (B) of rat brain sections.

<p>Sections were stained with Haematoxylin and Eosin. Black arrows indicate neuroinflammation along with apoptotic cells 1: sham control: neurons are intact 2: OBX control: mild-moderate infiltration of inflammatory cells with large number of apoptotic cells 3: treated with curcumin (200 mg/kg): slight inflammation of neurons with less apoptotic cells 4: treated with curcumin (200 mg/kg) +piperine (20 mg/kg): neurons are preserved. (HE stain×250).</p

Effect of curcumin, piperine and their co-administration on TNF- α activity.

<p>Values are expressed as mean <i>±</i> SEM. For statistical significance, ^a<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to sham group; ^b<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX control;^c<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+C1; ^d<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+C2; ^e<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+P (One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test). OBX, Olfactory Bulbectomy; C1, curcumin (100 mg/kg); C2, curcumin (200 mg/kg); C3, curcumin (400 mg/kg); P, piperine (20 mg/kg); I, imipramine (10 mg/kg).</p

Effect of curcumin, piperine and their co-administration on BDNF levels.

<p>Values are expressed as mean <i>±</i> SEM. For statistical significance, ^a<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to sham group; ^b<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX control;^c<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+C1; ^d<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+C2; ^e<i>P<</i>0.05 as compared to OBX+P (One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test). OBX, Olfactory Bulbectomy; C1, curcumin (100 mg/kg); C2, curcumin (200 mg/kg); C3, curcumin (400 mg/kg); P, piperine (20 mg/kg); I, imipramine (10 mg/kg).</p