Detecting z > 10 objects through carbon, nitrogen and oxygen emission lines

By redshift of 10, star formation in the first objects should have produced considerable amounts of Carbon, Nitrogen and Oxygen. The submillimeter lines of C, N and O redshift into the millimeter and centimeter bands (0.5 mm -- 1.2 cm), where they may be detectable. High spectral resolution observations could potentially detect inhomogeneities in C, N and O emission, and see the first objects forming at high redshift. We calculate expected intensity fluctuations and discuss frequency and angular resolution required to detect them. For CII emission, we estimate the intensity using two independent methods: the line emission coefficient argument and the luminosity density argument. We find they are in good agreement. At 1+z \sim 10, the typical protogalaxy has a velocity dispersion of 30 km s^{-1} and angular size of 1 arcsecond. If CII is the dominant coolant, then we estimate a characteristic line strength of \sim 0.1 K km s^{-1}. We also discuss other atomic lines and estimate their signal. Observations with angular resolution of 10^{-3} can detect moderately nonlinear fluctuations of amplitude 2 \cdot 10^{-5} times the microwave background. If the intensity fluctuations are detected, they will probe matter density inhomogeneity, chemical evolution and ionization history at high redshifts.Comment: 15 pages, 1 postscript figures included; Uses aaspp4.sty (AASTeX v4.0); Submitted to The Astrophysical Journa

Cross-Correlating Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation Fluctuations with Redshift Surveys: Detecting the Signature of Gravitational Lensing

Density inhomogeneities along the line-of-sight distort fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background. Usually, this effect is thought of as a small second-order effect that mildly alters the statistics of the microwave background fluctuations. We show that there is a first-order effect that is potentially observable if we combine microwave background maps with large redshift surveys. We introduce a new quantity that measures this lensing effect, $$, where T is the microwave background temperature and $\delta \theta$ is the lensing due to matter in the region probed by the redshift survey. We show that the expected signal is first order in the gravitational lensing bending angle, $< (\delta \theta)^2 >^{1/2}$, and find that it should be easily detectable, (S/N) $\sim$ 15-35, if we combine the Microwave Anisotropy Probe satellite and Sloan Digital Sky Survey data. Measurements of this cross-correlation will directly probe the ``bias'' factor, the relationship between fluctuations in mass and fluctuations in galaxy counts.Comment: 13 pages, 4 postscript figures included; Uses aaspp4.sty (AASTeX v4.0); Accepted for publication in Astrophysical Journal, Part

Buoyancy-driven circulation as horizontal convection on β-plane

The nature of the steady buoyancy-driven circulation is investigated using multi-level numerical models. An ocean which extends over the northern and southern hemispheres is forced by cooling in a confined region and heating in the rest of the ocean through the sea surface. As is already known, the circulation and associated thermal structure strongly depend upon the effect of the vertical diffusivity. This nature of the buoyancy-driven circulation is found in the thermodynamic balance. The vertical diffusion plays an essential role in the whole ocean domain. In counterbalancing the vertical diffusion, the horizontal advection at the deepest levels and the vertical advection in the rest of the interior region plays a dominant role. Thus, horizontal transport of cold water from the convective (cooling) to the diffusive (heating) region occurs mainly in the lowest part of the deep water. It is a natural consequence of predominance of the vertical diffusion that the buoyancy-driven circulation has a significant vertical shear well below the thermocline; the Stommel and Arons pattern for the deep circulation tends to be confined in the lower part of the deep water. Details of a set of alternating zonal jets along the equator and associated meridional circulation are obtained and discussed, and dependence on diffusivity and viscosity is also discussed

Negotiated Openness: U.S.-Japan Financial Negotiations and the Network of Financial Officials

This study examines the role of intergovernmental negotiations in facilitating liberalization of finance in terms of market opening to foreign business. The theoretical focus is on the significance of the international network of financial officials. Recognized as a highly technical area, the financial issues have been often separated from other issue areas in trade negotiations, and administered by a small number of governmental financial experts. However, in reality, the exclusivity of financial officials on this issue largely resulted from their preexisting international network; these officials behaved strategically to maintain this exclusivity in such an institutional context. Yet, financial issues became politicized overtime and more actors, including politicians and governmental agencies other than financial authorities participated in the negotiations after the late 1980s. I argue that the structure of intergovernmental negotiations can have a significant impact on the outcomes of those negotiations. If negotiations are held exclusively among a small number of financial officials who share the understanding of the issues on the table and have long-term relationships with each other, the demands and offers in the negotiations tend to be more moderate and realistic, and the outcomes involve incremental changes. On the other hand, when the issues are politicized and more actors are involved, the demands tend to be tougher and the negotiations often break off. To assess this assertion, this study examines the United States-Japan financial negotiations, which were the world's first intergovernmental negotiations on financial liberalization, started in 1983. Initiated as bilateral negotiations, the financial negotiations were later incorporated into a multilateral framework, which changed the institutional settings. This study divides a series of bilateral negotiations into four periods. In the first period, the financial authorities started the bilateral negotiation. The second period followed in the late 1980s and the early 1990s, when the involvement of the American Congress had brought a considerable change in the nature and the outcome of the negotiation. In the third time period, the bilateral negotiations were held under the multilateral framework of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The case of financial services negotiations and that of insurance are compared in this period, as different sets of actors were involved in them. In conclusion, the study discusses the implications of the United States-Japan financial negotiations for the more recent developments in opening up the financial markets of newly industrialized economies

The Effect of Cooling on the Density Profile of Hot Gas in Clusters of Galaxies: Is Additional Physics Needed?

We use high-resolution hydrodynamic simulations to investigate the density profile of hot gas in clusters of galaxies, adopting a variant of cold dark matter cosmologies and employing a cosmological N-body/smoothed particle hydrodynamics code to follow the evolution of dark matter and gas. In addition to gravitational interactions, gas pressure, and shock heating, we include bremsstrahlung cooling in the computation. Dynamical time, two-body relaxation time, and cooling time in the simulations are examined to demonstrate that the results are free from artificial relaxation effects and that the time step is short enough to accurately follow the evolution of the system. In the simulation with nominal resolution of 66h^{-1} kpc the computed cluster appears normal, but in a higher (by a factor 2) resolution run, cooling is so efficient that the final gas density profile shows a steep rise toward the cluster center that is not observed in real clusters. Also, the X-ray luminosity of 7\times10^{45} ergs s^{-1} far exceeds that for any cluster of the computed temperature. The most reasonable explanation for this discrepancy is that there are some physical processes still missing in the simulations that actually mitigate the cooling effect and play a crucial role in the thermal and dynamical evolution of the gas near the center. Among the promising candidate processes are heat conduction and heat input from supernovae. We discuss the extent to which these processes can alter the evolution of gas.Comment: 19 pages, 5 postscript figures included; uses aaspp4.sty (AASTeX v4.0); title changed; final version published in The Astrophysical Journa

Financial Deregulation in the U. S. and Japan : Policy Processes and Outcomes from a Comparative Perspective

経済の国際化が進展して世界的に規制緩和圧力が高まっており,中でも金融の分野は急速に自由化が進むものと予想されてきた.それにもかかわらず,日米両国で,銀行・証券業の業務分野規制が包括的に緩和されるまでに20年近い歳月を要した.規制緩和に至るまでの政策決定過程は,両国の政治制度の違いを反映して大きく異なっていた.しかし規制緩和を遅らせた最大の要因が,既存の規制が作り出した既得権益を巡る利益集団間の対立に求められる点は,両国に共通していた.Globalization of finance has been a driving force behind the worldwide trend of deregulation. However, the comprehensive removal of restrictions that had separated commercial banking and securities took place only in the late 1990s both in the US and Japan, although the need for change had been recognized since the 1970s. The processes of deregulation were starkly different in these two countries, reflecting the difference in their policymaking institutions. On the other hand, similar configuration of interest groups, resulted from the compartmentalization of the financial industry, hindered liberalization in both of the countries