RASSENVARIETÄTEN ODER RASSENUNTERSCHIEDE: GENETISCHE PRODUKTION NEUER RASSENMYTHEN

U okvirima ekologije i socijalne ekologije središnje teme čine zagađivanje okoline, zdravi i održivi razvoj, kontrola rizika. Mnogo se raspravlja i o nestajanju brojnih biljnih i životinjskih vrsta. Istodobno, nije odgovoreno na jednako značajno pitanje: kako sačuvati desetke različitih etničkih skupina koje upravo zauvijek nestaju s tla Zemlje, koju su nastanjivali milijunima godina? Genetičari su kao nadomjestak ponudili projekte očuvanja genetičke građe nestajućih naroda i zajedno s njima projekte utvrđivanja objektivnih razlika/varijacija među rasama. Taj pokušaj koincidira sa činjenicom da se ove, 1995., godine navršava punih 200 godina od objavljivanja djela "De generis humani varietete natura". To je djelo izvršilo golem znanstveni utjecaj, uglavnom negativan, na modernu antropologiju, sociologiju, ekologiju populacija i genetiku. Jednako kao što je Carl Linne (Linneus), učinio identičnu taksonomiju biologijskog svijeta i time utjecao na formiranje čitavog epistemološkog polja rasprava o metodama klasifikacije i hijerarhizacije živog svijeta, tako je i Blumenbachova taksonomija i klasifikacija ljudske vrste, koja paradigmatično i temporalno odgovara Linneovoj taksonomiji, utjecala na stvaranje pogrešnih predodžbi o rasama i rasnim razlikama. U čemu je bila bit tog »pionirskog« Blumenbachova taksonomijskog pokušaja u području klasifikacije rasa? Cilj mu je bio razvijanje populacijske taksonomije koja u svojim premisama ima teoriju i ideju čistog rasnog tipa/čiste rase. Mnoge od tih teorijskih pretpostavki prepoznajemo u aktualnim genetičkim projektima istraživanja rasnih razlika/varijacija i u praksi kontrole etničkih manjinskih skupina na osnovi kontrole genskog materijala.Within the ecology and social ecology the central topics are environmental pollution, sustainable development, risk management and alike. The extinction of numerous plant and animal species is also being extensively discussed. At he same time, it has not been answered to equally important question: how to preserve dozens of different ethnic groups that are just now disappearing for the surface of the Earth. Geneticists have started projects of the genetic material conservation of the dying nations, as well as projects aiming to establish objective differences (variations) among races. That attempt coincides with the fact that this year, 1995, full 200 years passes form the publication of the book ŁDe generis humani varietate naturať. The book has made an enormous influence, mainly negative, on modern anthropology, sociology, populations ecology, and genetics. Blumenbach\u27s taxonomy and human species classification has influenced the creation of wrong ideas on races and racial differences (equally as Carl Linne, with his taxonomy of the biological world, has influenced the entire epistemological field of disputes on the classification methods and hierarchization of the living world). What was the essence of that "pioneering" Blumenbach\u27s attempt in the field of classification of races? Its goal was the development of populations taxonomy that is based on the theory and idea of pure racial type (pure race). Many of these theoretical assumptions can be recognized in contemporary genetic projects researching racial differences (variations), as well as in the practice of the ethnic minority groups control on the basis of genetic material control.Im Rahmen der Ökologie und Sozialökologie bilden die Umweltverschmutzung, umweltfreundliche und nachhaltige Entwicklung, sowie die Risikokontrolle zentrale Themen des wissenschaftlichen Interesses. Auerdem wird in vielen Abhandlungen das Aussterben zahlreicher Pflanzen- und Tierarten erörtert. Zugleich bleibt aber eine ebenso wichtige Frage ohne Antwort: Wie sollen Dutzende verschiedener ethnisher Gruppen vor dem drohenden Untergang bewahrt werden? Als Ersatz für deren effektiven Schutz haben die Genetiker Projekte zur Aufbewahrung genetischen Materials der im Schwinden begriffenen Völker erarbeitet, zusammen mit einem umfassenden Forschungsprogramm zur Feststellung objektiver Rassenunterschiede bzw. Rassenvarietäten. Dieser Versuch fällt mit der 200-Jahr-Feier der Veröffentlichung vom Werk ŁDe generis humani varietete naturať zusammen. Dieses Werk hatte einen groen, meistens negativen Einflu auf viele Wissenschaften ausgeübt, wie z.B. auf die moderne Anthropologie, Soziologie, Bevölkerungsökologie und Genetik. Genauso wie Carl Linné (Linneus), der mit seiner Taxonomie der Pflanzen und Tiere ein epistemologisches Feld geschaffen hatte, in dem sich alle späteren Abhandlungen über Methoden der Klassifizierung und Einordnung von Lebewesen bewogen, hat auch Blumenbachs Taxonomie und Klassifizierung der Menschenarten, die paradigmatisch und zeitlich der von Linné entspricht, die Entwicklung falscher Vorstellungen von Rassen und Rassenunterschieden beeinflut. Worin lag die Bedeutung von Blumebach als Pionier einer neuen Entwicklung im Bereich der Rassenklassifizierung? Sein Ziel war die Erarbeitung einer Taxonomie der Bevölkerungsgruppen, deren Grundlagen die Theorie und Idee eines reinen Rassentyps und einer reinen Rasse bilden. Viele dieser theoretischen Grundlagen können in zeitgenössischen genetischen Forschungsprojekten der Rassenunterschiede bzw. Rassenvarietäten, sowie in der Überwachung ethnischer Minderheiten durch die Kontrolle deren gentischen Materials aufgedeckt werden

Postwelfare Indicators and Health Reform in Croatia

Reforme zdravstva u Europi po prvi puta u povijesti vrše se prema određenom stupnju standardiziranih kriterija. Prateći integracijske procese potaknute od strane EU Regionalni ured WHO započeo je intenzivnu interdisciplinarnu znanstvenu i tehničku aktivnost koja podupire stvaranje novih sustava zdravstva. Istovremeno u Hrvatskoj je, u veoma teškim, gotovo nemogućim okolnostima, otpočeta reforma zdravstva. Kako teče integracijski proces sustava zdravstva u Hrvatskoj prema Europskim sustavima i zemljama OECD? Radeći na projektu „Komparativno istraživanje zdravstvenih sustava u Europi i Hrvatskoj“ analizom teorijskih sustava došli smo do postwelfare indikatora značajnih za organizaciju sustava zdravstva: tip organizacije zdravstva, vlasništvo, mehanizmi kontrole i plaćanja. Kriteriji za evaluaciju tih elemenata su: accessibility (pristupačnost), acceptability (prihvatljivost), affordability (upotrebljivost) i equity (jednakost). Kombiniranjem općih i specifičnih postwelfare indikatora dobili smo uvid u sedam bazičnih elemenata pomoću kojih se vrši evaluacija kvalitete zdravstvenih sustava: cost-containment, javno mnijenje o zdravstvenom sustavu, decentralizacija, uloga tržišta, kvaliteta usluga, tip zdravstvenog osiguranja. Metodologija istraživanja zasnivala se na sva tri tipa bihevioral-nih istraživanja zdravstvenih procesa (individualna, agregatna, višeslojna). Kao referentni okvir ciljeva koje treba postići reformom zdravstva koristili smo: ciljeve „Zdravlje za sve do godine 2000“ određene od strane WHO, pokazatelje OECD-a i zdravstvene indikatore objavljene od strane Svjetske banke.Health systems reforms in Europe for the first time in history are faced with the standardization according to the common criteria. Following the integration processes initiated by the European Union (EU), the World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (WHO/EURO) started an intensive interdisciplinary technical and scientific activity to enable designing the new health care systems. In the same time, in the very hard circumstances, started health care reform in Croatia. What is happening with the integration processes between the health system in Croatia and the health systems in Europe according the criteria, standards and experience of other countries which was verified by the EU? By the analysis of theoretic systems, the elements were found for system analysis. These general postwelfare indicators are: health system organization (the type of delivering services), ownership (system control), mechanisms for financing and payment of health services. There are three basic theoretic health models: national health services, social (compulsory health) insurance, and private health system. The criteria for evaluation (measurement) of effects of various systems are: accessibility, acceptability, affordability and equality. The aim of this research is to get insight into seven basic components of health system reform Croatia and Europe according to scientific indicators. These components are: cost-containment, public expectations, decentralization, market mechanisms, quality, assurance, vocational training for health manpower in new work conditions. This methodology uses all the three approaches used in behaviouristic researches of health processes (individual, aggregate, cross-level approach). This article which is “work in progress” presents some results of the third stage of project “Comparative study of health care systems in Europe and in Croatia” (5.06-198) answering the question how Croatian health care reform fulfill the following criteria: legitimacy, knowledge and technology, quality and optimum of economic rationality. In analyzing and evaluating the reform processes we are general health indicators (such as targets of the ‘Health for All by the Year 2000’ WHO strategy, OECD health data, The World Bank Health Indicators Report from the year 1993)

KONZEPTE DER LEBENSQUALITÄT

U radu se analiziraju značenja pojma »kvaliteta života«. Koncepti svetosti života, kvalitete i socijalne upotrebljivosti života nisu apstraktni idealni tipovi. Postmoderno poimanje kvalitete života socijalno je izraženo kroz „fitness“ pokret, a u medicini kroz koncept »dobrog života«. Pošto kriteriji za mjerenje kvalitete života u zdravstvenoj zaštiti nisu uspostavljeni, u radu je dano nekoliko mogućih definicija i koncepata, kao što su: - shvaćanje kvalitete života kao ispunjenja ciljeva; - kvaliteta života koja je izjednačena s osobnom socijalnom identifikacijom; - koncept tzv. racionalnog čovjeka; - individualistička gledišta. Također su analizirane različite skale za mjerenje kvalitete života (Kornfieldova, Katzova, Weinsteinova, Lehmanova, Spitzerova, Lawtovova skala) te njihova primjena u istraživanjima. Na konkretnim primjerima pokazano je kako liječnici-profesionalci reteriraju od koncepta svetosti života prema ideji kvalitete života kada se nalaze u situaciji dnevne njege (tretman bolesnika kojima je ugrađen „by-pass“, kemoterapija kod bolesnika oboljelih od raka pluća, bolesnici u terminalnim stanjima itd.).The purpose of this paper was to illustrate the multiplicity of meanings of the phrase "quality of life". This multiplicity has arisen after the fitness movement has been developed. The concept of sanctity of life, quality of life and social utility of life have never been clearly articulated, in the paper it is given a series of possible definitions such as - quality of life as fulfillment of personal goals; - quality of life as it refers to individual social utility - the rational man definition; - the individualistic view. Very few social researches made attempts to identify some sort of overall measure of quality of life as whole and also subjective and objective indicators, usually by aggregating a variety of objective measures. They were also analyzed scales for measurement of the quality of life (Kornfield group definition; Weinstein and Stanson definition; Katz\u27s; Andrews and Whitney\u27s; Lehman\u27s; Spitzer\u27s and Lawton\u27s). It is shown how physician often retreat from sanctity of life to an operative ideology of rational-man quality of life in the daily care for their patients (for ex. treatment of coronary artery bypass surgery, terminally ill patients, quality of life during chemotherapy for breast cancer...).In der Arbeit werden die Bedeutungen des Begriffs der Lebensqualität analysiert. Die Konzepte der Heiligkeit des Lebens, der Lebensqualität und der sozialen Gebräuchlichkeit des Lebens sind keine abstrakten Idealtypen. Die postmoderne Auffassung der Lebensqualität wird sozial durch Fitness-Bewegung ausgedrückt, und in der Medizin durch das Konzept des guten Lebens. Da noch immer keine Kriterien für eine Messung der Lebensqualität in der medizinischen Vorsorge feststehen, wird hier eine mögliche Menge von Definitionen und Konzepten gegeben: - Lebensqualität als die Erfüllung der Ziele - Lebensqualität, die mit der individuellen Sozialidentifikation gleichgesetzt wird - das Konzept des sog. rationalen Menschen - individualistischer Ansatz Verscheidene Skalen für Messung der Lebensqualität (Kornfields, Katzs, Weinsteins, Lehmans, Spitzers, Lawtons) und ihre Anwendung in der Forschung wurden auch analysiert. An konkreten Beispielen wurde gezeigt, wie die Ärzte das Konzept der Heiligkeit des Lebens zugunsten dem der Lebensqualität aufgeben, wenn es um den Bereich der Intensivmedizin geht (Behandlung von Patienten mit eingebautem By-Pass, Chemotherapie bei Lungenkrebskranken, Terminalzustände)

Normal and Pathological, The constitution of medical and sociological paradigms

Što je normalno a što je patološko? Kakav treba biti normalan čovjek, i što je to "prosječan tip" (Quetelet)? To je i danas središnje pitanje medicine (patologije, fiziologije, patofiziologije) ali i sociologije (normalno ponašanje, normalna organizacija, socijalna norma i abnormalnost). Socijalne uloge su povezane s normama koje su uključene u proces stvaranja obrazaca ponašanja. Takva pojmovna i metodologijska povezanost sociologije i biologije/medicine nije neočekivana. O. Comte, koji je konstituirao pojam sociologija, bio je u neposrednoj znanstvenoj komunikaciji s Bernardom, Brussaisom, Magendiem i ostalim poznatim fiziolozima te je od njih u sociološku upotrebu prenio pojmove poput homeostaze, unutarnje i vanjske okoline, terapije, anomalije, varijacije, adaptacije. Niti jedan realni poredak ne može se uspostaviti niti trajati ako nije u potpunosti kompatibilan s napretkom, niti jedan značajan napredak nije ostvariv ako nije potpuno uspostavio red, smatrao je Comte. Odnos između norme i ponašanja osobe u socijalnoj ulozi (npr. ulozi bolesnika) je određena sankcijama protiv devijacije od normi. Bolnost, nemoć i bolest su sankcije za devijacije od fizioloških i bioloških nonni uspostavljenih kao obrasci zdravog življenja. A li što znači nonna u fizologiji i biologiji, i kako se ona uspostavlja. Ima li sociokulturno ili isključivo biologijsko značenje. U radu se odgovara na ta pitanja objašnjenjem procesa konstituiranja paradigme normalnosti u medicini (fiziologiji, biologiji, patofiziologiji, genetici..) kao središnje paradigme koja se uspostavlja utvrđivanjem razlike između patološkog i normalnog nivoa funkcioniranja stanica, tkiva, organa... Kvantifikacijom tih odnosa (npr. izračunavanje Gaussove krivulje patoloških odstupanja) medicina se pokušava utemeljiti u metodologiji prirodnih znanosti.The term sociology was invented by Comte and until quite recent times preserved a strong connection with the style of thinking characteristic for life sciences. That is not strange because Comte took the terms like homeostasis, therapy, anomaly, heterotaksy, stability, order with continuity, variation, selection, adaptation, differentiation, from physiologist like Bernard and Broussais. What is normal and what pathological? Who is normal and who average type (Quetelet)? That is central question in medicine (pathology, psychopathology, physiology, genetics) and also in sociology (normal behaviour, normal organisation, social normality and abnormality). Social roles are associated with norms, which involve patterns of expectation and patterns of behaviour. Relation between the norm and the behaviour of a person in this social role is maintained by sanctions against deviations from norm. Illness, sickness and disease are sanctions for deviations from physiological and biological norms. But what means term norm in physiology and psychopathology? The paper answers that question by explaining the constitution of central paradigm in medicine (fiziology, pathofiziology, genetics) and the role of idea of normal and pathological defined as quantitative and functional difference between pathological and normal levels of functioning cells, tissues, organs..