Major threats affecting endemic palm species in Madagascar.

<p>Bar heights reflect number of species affected by each threat, as indicated in the 2012 IUCN conservation assessment <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone.0103684-IUCN1" target="_blank">[44]</a>. Threat categories follow the Threats Classification Scheme version 3.2 <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone.0103684-International5" target="_blank">[51]</a>, using the top two levels of the hierarchy. Abbreviations: Residential & commercial development (Residential): Housing & urban areas (H&UA), Tourism & recreation areas (T&RA); Agriculture & aquaculture (Agriculture): Shifting agriculture (SA), Small-holder farming (SF), Scale unknown/unrecorded (SU), Nomadic grazing (NG), Small-holder grazing, ranching or farming (SG); Energy production & mining (Energy): Mining & quarrying (M&Q), Renewable energy (RE); Biological resource use (Biological): Gathering terrestrial plants, Intentional use (species being assessed is the target) (G:IU), Gathering terrestrial plants, unintentional use (G:UU), Logging & wood harvesting for subsistence, Intentional use: subsistence/small scale (species being assessed is the target) (LW: IS), Logging & wood harvesting, Intentional use: large scale (species being assessed is the target) (LW: IL); Logging & wood harvesting, Unintentional effects: subsistence/small scale (species being assessed is not the target) (LW: US), Logging & wood harvesting, Unintentional effects: large scale (species being assessed is not the target) (LW: UL); Natural system modifications (NSM): Increase in fire frequency (IF); Climate change & severe weather (Climate): Storm & flooding (SF).</p

The conservation status of all 192 endemic Madagascar palm species.

<p>The conservation status of all 192 endemic Madagascar palm species.</p

Example of palm species under threat in Madagascar.

<p>(a) Anthropogenic fires in grasslands, causing decline and destruction of palm populations, such as <i>Dypsis decipiens</i> (VU), Itremo. (b) Forest clearance for slash and burn cultivation by smallholder farmers, causing habitat loss for many species, such as <i>Masoala kona</i> (EN), Ifanadiana. (c) Gathering of young leaves of <i>Ravenea lakatra</i> (VU) for production of woven hats and basketry, Masoala. (d) Destructive harvest of palm heart threatens many species such as <i>Dypsis saintelucei</i> (EN), Sainte Luce. (e) Remnant populations of species such as <i>Tahina spectabilis</i> (CR), Analalava, near Mahajanga in vegetation remnants isolated within anthropogenic landscapes, at risk from fire, grazing and other human pressures. Image credits: (a) M Rakotoarinivo, (b) WJ Baker, (c, d & e) J Dransfield.</p

Comparison between the palm assessment of 1995 and 2012.

<p>IUCN Red List categories: Extinct in the Wild (EW), Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), Vulnerable (VU), Least Concern (LC), Data Deficient (DD) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone.0103684-International3" target="_blank">[31]</a>. (a) Number of species assessed in each category (total assessments: 164 in 1995, 192 in 2012). All species assessed in each year are illustrated (see <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone-0103684-t003" target="_blank">Table 3</a>), except for those placed in categories that are not comparable (13 species assessed as “Rare” in 1995 <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone.0103684-Dransfield1" target="_blank">[10]</a> and 14 species assessed as NT in 2012 <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone.0103684-IUCN1" target="_blank">[44]</a>; see methods). (b) Change in IUCN Red List status (see <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone-0103684-t003" target="_blank">Table 3</a>) where positive values indicate downlisting to lower extinction risk (e.g. CR to EN is a downlisting of 1 step) and negative values indicate uplisting to higher extinction risk (e.g. EN to CR is an uplisting of 1 step). <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone-0103684-g003" target="_blank">Figure 3b</a> includes 130 data sufficient species (i.e. excluding species rated as DD in either year) that were assessed in comparable categories in both 1995 <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone.0103684-Dransfield1" target="_blank">[10]</a> and 2012 <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone.0103684-IUCN1" target="_blank">[44]</a>.</p

Fieldwork locations visited by the authors.

<p>Fieldwork locations visited by the authors.</p

Palm distributions, humid forest and protected areas in Madagascar.

<p>(a) Palm specimen collection localities in Madagascar and extent of humid forest vegetation <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone.0103684-Moat1" target="_blank">[13]</a>. (b) Species richness of palms in Madagascar <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone.0103684-Rakotoarinivo1" target="_blank">[6]</a> illustrating predicted number of palm species across the island at a resolution of 0.2° (ca. 22 km × 22 km). (c) Protected area network in Madagascar comprising the long-standing MNP network (46 parks and reserves <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone.0103684-Association1" target="_blank">[50]</a>) and the newly established SAPM (145 reserves, including those of the MNP network <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0103684#pone.0103684-SystmedesAiresProtgesdeMadagascar1" target="_blank">[23]</a>).</p

Threatened and data deficient palm species that do not occur in the SAPM protected area network.

<p>Threatened and data deficient palm species that do not occur in the SAPM protected area network.</p

Summary of results from the 2012 IUCN Red List Assessment of Madagascar Palms.

<p>Summary of results from the 2012 IUCN Red List Assessment of Madagascar Palms.</p

Workpackage 9

<p>Numbers of species from the combined SRLI for Plants sample of gymnosperms, monocots, legumes and pteridophytes by IUCN Red List Category for each group of plants.</p

Red List Indices for birds, mammals, amphibians and corals (source: IUCN), with baseline values for crayfish [13], freshwater crabs [16], dragonflies & damselflies [17], reptiles [19] and plants (this study).

<p>Values for crayfish, freshwater crabs, dragonflies and damselflies, reptiles and plants are based on a sampled approach.</p