A longitudinal examination of stressors, appraisals, and coping in youth swimming

Purpose Involvement in sport has the potential to cause athletes, coaches, and parents to experience stress. However, the extent to which experiences of stress are shared within the athletic triad is unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine the individual and shared stress experiences among youth swimmers, their mothers, and coach within the context of training, tapering, and competition. Design Multi-case study design. Method Four female swimmers, their mother, and one coach completed daily diaries for six weeks and up to three semi-structured interviews. Data were analyzed through within- and cross-case thematic analysis. Results The study showed evidence of shared stress experiences between all three members of the athletic triad. Participants predominately encountered organizational stressors, which they appraised in relation to movements between squad, interpersonal relationships, and overall progress towards performance goals/outcomes. Numerous coping strategies were employed by participants, with varying degrees of effectiveness, such as seeking social support, distancing, and lift sharing. The coping strategies used by coaches, swimmers, and parents were often interrelated with participants frequently seeking emotional support from one another. The majority of stressors and appraisals cited by parents and swimmers were shared, with both heavily relying on social support to help each other cope with the stressors encountered. Conclusion Athletes, parents, and coaches have the capacity to influence one another's stress experiences and as such their experiences should be considered simultaneously to maximize the impact of interventions

Identification and Enhancement of Pre Performance Mental States in Male Rugby Union Players

The purpose of this thesis was concerned with the identification of the nature and content of the pre performance affective experience of the rugby union performer, and the subsequent measurement of the efficacy of a psychological intervention strategy to enhance the precompetitive mental state. Study 1 of the thesis conducted a preliminary investigation into the overall experience of sports performers' precompetitive affect (i.e., negative/positive) and the relationship with symptoms associated with competitive anxiety through the employment of trait self-report measures. The findings highlighted the importance of maintaining favourable perceptions of anxiety in the experience of positive affect. In order to describe the nature of this positive affective state, a sport specific self-report scale was designed and validated in Study 2 within a population of competitive athletes. Study 3 used the scale to examine the content of the pre performance affective experience and the relationship with interpretations of symptoms associated with competitive anxiety. The findings identified the existence of competitive anxiety symptoms. In order to derive a comprehensive understanding of the precompetitive experience a qualitative perspective was employed in Study 4. In-depth interviews were conducted with 12 international, male, rugby union players. Appropriate pre performance mental states were identified with symptoms associated with mental, physical, and technical readiness. Inappropriate pre performance mental states were symptomatic of a lack of mental, physical and technical readiness and negative experiences associated with competitive anxiety symptoms. The study also established the influence of significant others upon an individual's mental preparation for competition within the context of the team sport. A final purpose of Study 4 was to describe the psychological strategies employed by performers to achieve appropriate pre performance mental states. The study identified the employment of task-specific imagery in order to facilitate appropriate pre performance mental states. Utilising these findings, the final study of the thesis adopted a single-case design to investigate the efficacy of a task-specific imagery strategy in enhancing appropriate mental readiness for performance in 4 sub-elite rugby union players. The findings demonstrated enhancement in pre performance mental readiness across all participants. Specifically, increases in the level of mental preparation and self-confidence were identified, whilst a lower level of competitive anxiety symptoms were reported. The overall findings of the thesis have facilitated a greater understanding of the affective experiences and psychological strategies of competitive athletes prior to performing. Practical recommendations are proposed in order to facilitate the enhancement and achievement of ideal precompetitive mental states in sports performers. These outline the importance of employing structured task-specific imagery to facilitate appropriate activation states and the need to establish structured mental 'warm up' periods in the preparation for competition

Observation as a method to enhance collective efficacy: An integrative review

Objectives This review provides an integrative argument for the use of observation as an intervention to manipulate individual collective efficacy beliefs in sports teams. Design An exploration of the conceptual and empirical evidence underpinning observation-based interventions for increasing collective efficacy. Method A presentation of reflections on the following. First, we reflect on existing techniques used to increase self- and collective efficacy beliefs. Second, we consider collective efficacy in the context of observational learning and the various modeling techniques employed in the sports and motor performance literature. Third, we highlight relevant literature from neuroscience, outlining the analogous neural pathways evident for social cognition (i.e., collective efficacy) and observation. Results This review presents a case for the use of observation interventions to manipulate collective efficacy, drawing upon social psychological frameworks of human behavior, the observation-based literature, and contemporary understanding of brain and behavior. Conclusions Observation-based interventions are suited for collective efficacy manipulation in sport. There is a need to advance understanding of this relationship in order to maximize improvements in collective efficacy across group contexts

“It’s psychology Jim, but not as we know it!”: The changing face of applied sport psychology practice

Applied sport psychology has developed substantially in recent decades, and there exist a multitude of views regarding how contemporary practices can be best defined and conceptualized. In this paper, we reflect on these developments and draw from a growing body of literature on professional development, in an attempt to provide clarity on the expanding roles and responsibilities of the applied sport psychology practitioner. In so doing, we acknowledge the recent diversification of applied sport psychology practices, with an emphasis on competencies relating to: working with more diverse performance populations (e.g., in business, military, healthcare, education, and the performing arts); engaging in organizational psychological practices; positive youth development; promoting life skills; and mental health and counselling support provisions Further, we offer suggestions for the future of applied sport psychology education and training, in an effort to contribute to the profession’s continued journey toward maturation. This includes discussion surrounding the possible implementation of multi-supervisory pathways, extended placement opportunities and engagement in post training practices within specialist performance domains, in an effort to aid the development of more diverse competencies which reflect the multiplicity of current practice

The relationship between imagery type and collective efficacy in elite and non elite athletes

This study investigated the relationship between imagery function and individual perceptions of collective efficacy as a function of skill level. Elite (n = 70) and non elite (n = 71) athletes from a number of interactive team sports completed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ) and the Collective Efficacy Inventory (CEI). Multiple hierarchical regression analysis was then used to examine which SIQ sub-scales predicted individual perceptions of collective efficacy. For the elite sample, Motivational General-Mastery (MG-M) imagery accounted for approximately 17% of the variance in collective efficacy scores. No significant predictions were observed in the non elite sample. The findings suggest MG-M imagery as a potential technique to improve levels of collective efficacy although competitive level may moderate the effectiveness of such intervention

Addiction in Extreme Sports: An Exploration of Withdrawal States in Rock Climbers

Background and aims Extreme sports athletes are often labeled “adrenaline junkies” by the media, implying they are addicted to their sport. Research suggests during abstinence these athletes may experience withdrawal states characteristic of individuals with an addiction (Celsi, Rose, & Leigh, 1993; Franken, Zijlstra, & Muris, 2006; Willig, 2008). Despite this notion, no research has directly explored withdrawal experiences of extreme sports athletes. Methods Using semi-structured interviews, we explored withdrawal experiences of high (n = 4) and average-ability (n = 4) male rock climbers during periods of abstinence. We investigated the psychological and behavioral aspects of withdrawal, including craving, anhedonia, and negative affect; and differences in the frequency and intensity of these states between groups. Results Deductive content analysis indicated support for each of the three categories of anhedonia, craving, and negative affect. Consistent with existing substance addiction literature, high-ability climbers recalled more frequent and intense craving states and negative affect during abstinence compared with average-ability climbers. No differences in anhedonic symptoms between high and average-ability participants were found. Conclusions Rock climbing athletes appear to experience withdrawal symptoms when abstinent from their sport comparable to individuals with substance and behavioral addictions. The implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed

“Maybe I’m just not good enough?”: British swimmers’ experiences of attempting to qualify for the Olympic Games

The purpose of this study was to explore the transitional experiences of British swimmers as they attempted to qualify for the Olympic Games and gain a place in the British Swimming World Class Performance Programme. An Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach was adopted.1 Six swimmers (aged 20-25 years), one of each of their parents, and four coaches completed interviews leading up to and following Olympic trials over an eight month period. Audio recordings were transcribed verbatim and analysed following the guidelines set out by Smith and Osborne. 2 Results indicated that athletes’ transition experiences were characterised by a range of demands, which were categorised into five higher order themes (a) Questioning “Am I good enough?”; (b) Managing and fulfilling expectations; (c) Operating within an environment that is working against them; (d) Lacking support and understanding of self and demands; and (e) Maintaining balance versus being an international swimmer. Overall, the results indicate that this attempted transition is complex, challenging, and unique and largely influenced by self-confidence. Addressing the individual factors impacting on athletes’ self-confidence appears critical to enhancing swimmers’ transitional experiences at the highest level

Who said “there is no ‘I’ in team”? The effects of observational learning content level on efficacy beliefs in groups

Objectives To investigate the effects of individual-level observational learning (OLINDV), team-level observational learning (OLTEAM), and multi-level observational learning (OLMULTI) on efficacy beliefs, task cohesion, and performance across three studies in sports teams. Design Cross-sectional, experimental and single-case designs were employed across the three studies, respectively. Method Study 1 used a cross-sectional design to explore the predictive relationship between OLINDV and OLTEAM use, and collective efficacy and task cohesion in 210 team sports athletes. Study 2 used a repeated-measures experimental design to compare effects of OLINDV versus OLTEAM interventions on collective and self-efficacy in two soccer teams. Study 3 used a single-case A-A-B-B design to assess the effectiveness of OLMULTI interventions on self-efficacy, collective efficacy, task cohesion and performance in an elite age-grade rugby union team across a competitive season. Results In study 1, both OLINDV and OLTEAM use predicted collective efficacy, but only OLTEAM use predicted task dimensions of cohesion. In study 2, collective efficacy increased for both the OLINDV and OLTEAM interventions while self-efficacy increased only for the OLINDV intervention. In study 3, visual and effect size analyses indicated increased self-efficacy, collective efficacy task cohesion, and performance for the team during the off- and in-season intervention phases where the OLMULTI interventions were administered alongside usual sporting involvement (training sessions and/or competitive fixtures). Conclusions The novel findings of this investigation show that OLINDV, OLTEAM and OLMULTI interventions can enhance efficacy beliefs in practical contexts and warrant application in groups across domains