Inversion Approach to Validate Mercury Emissions Based on Background Air Monitoring at the High Altitude Research Station Jungfraujoch (3580 m)

The reduction of emissions of mercury is a declared aim of the Minamata Convention, a UN treaty designed to protect human health and the environment from adverse effects of mercury. To assess the effectiveness of the convention in the future, better constraints about the current mercury emissions is a premise. In our study, we applied a top-down approach to quantify mercury emissions on the basis of atmospheric mercury measurements conducted at the remote high altitude monitoring station Jungfraujoch, Switzerland. We established the source-receptor relationships and by the means of atmospheric inversion we were able to quantify spatially resolved European emissions of 89 ± 14 t/a for elemental mercury. Our European emission estimate is 17% higher than the bottom-up emission inventory, which is within stated uncertainties. However, some regions with unexpectedly high emissions were identified. Stationary combustion, in particular in coal-fired power plants, is found to be the main responsible sector for increased emission estimates. Our top-down approach, based on measurements, provides an independent constraint on mercury emissions, helps to improve and refine reported emission inventories, and can serve for continued assessment of future changes in emissions independent from bottom-up inventories

Impacts of the Degradation of 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene into Trifluoroacetic Acid from Its Application in Automobile Air Conditioners in China, the United States, and Europe

HFO-1234yf (2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene) was proposed as an automobile air conditioner (MAC) refrigerant worldwide. However, its atmospheric degradation product is the highly soluble and phytotoxic trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), which persists in aquatic environments. We used a global three-dimensional chemical transport model to assess the potential environmental effects resulting from complete future conversion of the refrigerant in all MAC to HFO-1234yf in China, the United States, and Europe. The annual mean atmospheric concentrations of HFO-1234yf were 2.62, 2.20, and 2.73 pptv, and the mean deposition rates of TFA were 0.96, 0.45, and 0.52 kg km^–2 yr^–1, in three regions. The regional TFA deposition sources mainly came from emissions within the same region. The annual TFA deposition in the North Pole region was lower than the global average and mainly originated from European emissions. A potential doubling in the future HFO-1234yf emissions in China mainly affected the local TFA depositions. The TFA concentrations in rainwater were strongly affected by the regional precipitation rates. North Africa and the Middle East, regions with scant rainfall, had extremely high TFA concentrations. The rainwater concentrations of TFA during individual rain events can exceed the level considered to be safe, indicating substantial potential regional risks from future HFO-1234yf use

Video_1_Three-dimensional analyses of vascular network morphology in a murine lymph node by X-ray phase-contrast tomography with a 2D Talbot array.mp4

With growing molecular evidence for correlations between spatial arrangement of blood vasculature and fundamental immunological functions, carried out in distinct compartments of the subdivided lymph node, there is an urgent need for three-dimensional models that can link these aspects. We reconstructed such models at a 1.84 µm resolution by the means of X-ray phase-contrast imaging with a 2D Talbot array in a short time without any staining. In addition reconstructions are verified in immunohistochemistry staining as well as in ultrastructural analyses. While conventional illustrations of mammalian lymph nodes depict the hilus as a definite point of blood and lymphatic vessel entry and exit, our method revealed that multiple branches enter and emerge from an area that extends up to one third of the organ’s surface. This could be a prerequisite for the drastic and location-dependent remodeling of vascularization, which is necessary for lymph node expansion during inflammation. Contrary to corrosion cast studies we identified B-cell follicles exhibiting a two times denser capillary network than the deep cortical units of the T-cell zone. In addition to our observation of high endothelial venules spatially surrounding the follicles, this suggests a direct connection between morphology and B-cell homing. Our findings will deepen the understanding of functional lymph node composition and lymphocyte migration on a fundamental basis.</p

Image_3_Three-dimensional analyses of vascular network morphology in a murine lymph node by X-ray phase-contrast tomography with a 2D Talbot array.pdf

With growing molecular evidence for correlations between spatial arrangement of blood vasculature and fundamental immunological functions, carried out in distinct compartments of the subdivided lymph node, there is an urgent need for three-dimensional models that can link these aspects. We reconstructed such models at a 1.84 µm resolution by the means of X-ray phase-contrast imaging with a 2D Talbot array in a short time without any staining. In addition reconstructions are verified in immunohistochemistry staining as well as in ultrastructural analyses. While conventional illustrations of mammalian lymph nodes depict the hilus as a definite point of blood and lymphatic vessel entry and exit, our method revealed that multiple branches enter and emerge from an area that extends up to one third of the organ’s surface. This could be a prerequisite for the drastic and location-dependent remodeling of vascularization, which is necessary for lymph node expansion during inflammation. Contrary to corrosion cast studies we identified B-cell follicles exhibiting a two times denser capillary network than the deep cortical units of the T-cell zone. In addition to our observation of high endothelial venules spatially surrounding the follicles, this suggests a direct connection between morphology and B-cell homing. Our findings will deepen the understanding of functional lymph node composition and lymphocyte migration on a fundamental basis.</p

Video_3_Three-dimensional analyses of vascular network morphology in a murine lymph node by X-ray phase-contrast tomography with a 2D Talbot array.mp4

With growing molecular evidence for correlations between spatial arrangement of blood vasculature and fundamental immunological functions, carried out in distinct compartments of the subdivided lymph node, there is an urgent need for three-dimensional models that can link these aspects. We reconstructed such models at a 1.84 µm resolution by the means of X-ray phase-contrast imaging with a 2D Talbot array in a short time without any staining. In addition reconstructions are verified in immunohistochemistry staining as well as in ultrastructural analyses. While conventional illustrations of mammalian lymph nodes depict the hilus as a definite point of blood and lymphatic vessel entry and exit, our method revealed that multiple branches enter and emerge from an area that extends up to one third of the organ’s surface. This could be a prerequisite for the drastic and location-dependent remodeling of vascularization, which is necessary for lymph node expansion during inflammation. Contrary to corrosion cast studies we identified B-cell follicles exhibiting a two times denser capillary network than the deep cortical units of the T-cell zone. In addition to our observation of high endothelial venules spatially surrounding the follicles, this suggests a direct connection between morphology and B-cell homing. Our findings will deepen the understanding of functional lymph node composition and lymphocyte migration on a fundamental basis.</p

Video_5_Three-dimensional analyses of vascular network morphology in a murine lymph node by X-ray phase-contrast tomography with a 2D Talbot array.mp4

With growing molecular evidence for correlations between spatial arrangement of blood vasculature and fundamental immunological functions, carried out in distinct compartments of the subdivided lymph node, there is an urgent need for three-dimensional models that can link these aspects. We reconstructed such models at a 1.84 µm resolution by the means of X-ray phase-contrast imaging with a 2D Talbot array in a short time without any staining. In addition reconstructions are verified in immunohistochemistry staining as well as in ultrastructural analyses. While conventional illustrations of mammalian lymph nodes depict the hilus as a definite point of blood and lymphatic vessel entry and exit, our method revealed that multiple branches enter and emerge from an area that extends up to one third of the organ’s surface. This could be a prerequisite for the drastic and location-dependent remodeling of vascularization, which is necessary for lymph node expansion during inflammation. Contrary to corrosion cast studies we identified B-cell follicles exhibiting a two times denser capillary network than the deep cortical units of the T-cell zone. In addition to our observation of high endothelial venules spatially surrounding the follicles, this suggests a direct connection between morphology and B-cell homing. Our findings will deepen the understanding of functional lymph node composition and lymphocyte migration on a fundamental basis.</p

Table_1_Three-dimensional analyses of vascular network morphology in a murine lymph node by X-ray phase-contrast tomography with a 2D Talbot array.pdf

With growing molecular evidence for correlations between spatial arrangement of blood vasculature and fundamental immunological functions, carried out in distinct compartments of the subdivided lymph node, there is an urgent need for three-dimensional models that can link these aspects. We reconstructed such models at a 1.84 µm resolution by the means of X-ray phase-contrast imaging with a 2D Talbot array in a short time without any staining. In addition reconstructions are verified in immunohistochemistry staining as well as in ultrastructural analyses. While conventional illustrations of mammalian lymph nodes depict the hilus as a definite point of blood and lymphatic vessel entry and exit, our method revealed that multiple branches enter and emerge from an area that extends up to one third of the organ’s surface. This could be a prerequisite for the drastic and location-dependent remodeling of vascularization, which is necessary for lymph node expansion during inflammation. Contrary to corrosion cast studies we identified B-cell follicles exhibiting a two times denser capillary network than the deep cortical units of the T-cell zone. In addition to our observation of high endothelial venules spatially surrounding the follicles, this suggests a direct connection between morphology and B-cell homing. Our findings will deepen the understanding of functional lymph node composition and lymphocyte migration on a fundamental basis.</p

Image_1_Three-dimensional analyses of vascular network morphology in a murine lymph node by X-ray phase-contrast tomography with a 2D Talbot array.pdf

With growing molecular evidence for correlations between spatial arrangement of blood vasculature and fundamental immunological functions, carried out in distinct compartments of the subdivided lymph node, there is an urgent need for three-dimensional models that can link these aspects. We reconstructed such models at a 1.84 µm resolution by the means of X-ray phase-contrast imaging with a 2D Talbot array in a short time without any staining. In addition reconstructions are verified in immunohistochemistry staining as well as in ultrastructural analyses. While conventional illustrations of mammalian lymph nodes depict the hilus as a definite point of blood and lymphatic vessel entry and exit, our method revealed that multiple branches enter and emerge from an area that extends up to one third of the organ’s surface. This could be a prerequisite for the drastic and location-dependent remodeling of vascularization, which is necessary for lymph node expansion during inflammation. Contrary to corrosion cast studies we identified B-cell follicles exhibiting a two times denser capillary network than the deep cortical units of the T-cell zone. In addition to our observation of high endothelial venules spatially surrounding the follicles, this suggests a direct connection between morphology and B-cell homing. Our findings will deepen the understanding of functional lymph node composition and lymphocyte migration on a fundamental basis.</p

DataSheet_1_Three-dimensional analyses of vascular network morphology in a murine lymph node by X-ray phase-contrast tomography with a 2D Talbot array.pdf

With growing molecular evidence for correlations between spatial arrangement of blood vasculature and fundamental immunological functions, carried out in distinct compartments of the subdivided lymph node, there is an urgent need for three-dimensional models that can link these aspects. We reconstructed such models at a 1.84 µm resolution by the means of X-ray phase-contrast imaging with a 2D Talbot array in a short time without any staining. In addition reconstructions are verified in immunohistochemistry staining as well as in ultrastructural analyses. While conventional illustrations of mammalian lymph nodes depict the hilus as a definite point of blood and lymphatic vessel entry and exit, our method revealed that multiple branches enter and emerge from an area that extends up to one third of the organ’s surface. This could be a prerequisite for the drastic and location-dependent remodeling of vascularization, which is necessary for lymph node expansion during inflammation. Contrary to corrosion cast studies we identified B-cell follicles exhibiting a two times denser capillary network than the deep cortical units of the T-cell zone. In addition to our observation of high endothelial venules spatially surrounding the follicles, this suggests a direct connection between morphology and B-cell homing. Our findings will deepen the understanding of functional lymph node composition and lymphocyte migration on a fundamental basis.</p

Video_2_Three-dimensional analyses of vascular network morphology in a murine lymph node by X-ray phase-contrast tomography with a 2D Talbot array.mp4

With growing molecular evidence for correlations between spatial arrangement of blood vasculature and fundamental immunological functions, carried out in distinct compartments of the subdivided lymph node, there is an urgent need for three-dimensional models that can link these aspects. We reconstructed such models at a 1.84 µm resolution by the means of X-ray phase-contrast imaging with a 2D Talbot array in a short time without any staining. In addition reconstructions are verified in immunohistochemistry staining as well as in ultrastructural analyses. While conventional illustrations of mammalian lymph nodes depict the hilus as a definite point of blood and lymphatic vessel entry and exit, our method revealed that multiple branches enter and emerge from an area that extends up to one third of the organ’s surface. This could be a prerequisite for the drastic and location-dependent remodeling of vascularization, which is necessary for lymph node expansion during inflammation. Contrary to corrosion cast studies we identified B-cell follicles exhibiting a two times denser capillary network than the deep cortical units of the T-cell zone. In addition to our observation of high endothelial venules spatially surrounding the follicles, this suggests a direct connection between morphology and B-cell homing. Our findings will deepen the understanding of functional lymph node composition and lymphocyte migration on a fundamental basis.</p