What experiences are needed to become a Division 1 Baseball, Football, or Track Athlete? A Retrospective Study of the Quantity of Deliberate Play

The acquisition of expert performance in various sports is generally attributed to the extended engagement in deliberate practice activities. Sport-specialization in high-school or earlier derives from the intent of developing sport expertise as well as the economic benefit of obtaining collegiate scholarships. Alternatively, sport-sampling allows for deliberate play. Deliberate play activities provide youths an opportunity to explore a variety of movements and tactics while encouraging innovation, improvisation, and the development of strategies. The influence of the family in the development of talent in sport is already established. Limited research exists that examines how deliberate practice activities in varied extracurricular activities throughout one’s youth contribute to performance in a particular sport. PURPOSE: Investigate the quantity of deliberate play that is required to become a collegiate division 1 athlete in the sports of baseball, football and track and field. METHODS: We used a structured online interview as proposed by Côté, Ericcson and Law (2005) to collect retrospective information. Fifty-one Division 1 collegiate athletes rated the daily activities they were involved when they were young as well as during their current period of development and assessed different factors that may have contributed to their current achievement level. RESULTS: Concerning early activities, 96% of the participants were involved in sports, 65% in musical, 17% in artistic, 72% in organized games with rules, and 48% in other sport-related activities (e.g. watching sports on television). In regards to physical factors that may have contributed to their exceptional athletic achievement, all participants’ height was average or above average when compared to peers and 78% sustained injuries that had adverse effect on their activity involvement. During their current stage of development, the participants tend to spend 26 hours per week sleeping, 10 hours eating, 10 hours socializing, 8 hours for school/career activities, and 8 hours studying. Lastly, although 75% of the athletes’ parents were not top athletes, 75% of them played a role and 86% were very involved when the participants first started in sport, and all parents were supportive/excited when their children decided to specialize in sports. CONCLUSION: The findings provide useful insights to all stakeholders (e.g., parents, coaches, inspiring collegiate athletes, athletic trainers, managers) in regards to developmental issues of D1 collegiate student-athletes, such as early sport and non-sport activity involvement, current daily activities, and the role of family. The developmental path of D1 student-athletes support Simon’s and Chase’s 10-year rule and Côté’s impact of family. Comparing the pattern of results in the developmental history between collegiate and professional and high-school and professional athletes should be included in the goals of future efforts

Handgrip Strength and VO2max Trends in Police Cadets: A Case Study

Among other components of physical fitness, performance on tactical tasks depends on cardiorespiratory endurance (CE) and muscular strength (MS). Police academies’ curriculum aim to increase cadets’ CE and MS, with males outscoring females in both tests. Curricula should assist cadets to adopt and adhere to a physically-active lifestyle while in the academy and upon graduation, for both health-related benefits and success in their tactical tasks. PURPOSE: To explore both CE-MS and sex trends between a four-year curriculum. METHODS: Retrospective data of 98 males and 79 females analyzed. Besides the senior year, cadets receive physical education classes. This serves as the foundation for adopting and adhering to physically-active lifestyle during their senior and postgraduation years by applying different training methods on their own. As part of their yearly evaluation, cadets completed a 12-min Cooper and a handgrip strength test. Estimated VO2max and absolute bilateral handgrip strength (HS) used as dependent variables. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) 4X2 for academic years and sex performed using SPSSÓ. RESULTS: Using Pillai’s trace, there was a significant effect of academic years, V=.09, F6,338=2.6, p=.02, η2 =.04 and sex, V=.80, F2,168=344.4,

The Effect of Sleep Quality and Being Physically Active on Developing Mental Toughness

Mental toughness (MT) has been increasingly associated with successful performance in several stressful and competitive environments (e.g. the military, business, academics, medicine, sports). Being physically active (PA) may compromise sleep quality (SQ). Research has reported conflicting associations regarding PA and MT. Regarding SQ and MT, a bidirectional association has been reported. However, research has not yet focused on the combined effects of PA and SQ on MT. PURPOSE: To characterize the association and the effects of PA and SQ on MT. The authors hypothesized that: (a) PA and SQ are negatively associated; (b) PA and MT are positively associated; (c) SQ and MT are negatively associated; and (d) the interaction effect of PA and SQ on MT will be buffering. METHODS: Sixty-two participants (age 25.4 6.0 SD) completed inventories related to SQ (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index) and MT (Mental Toughness Index). PA data were collected according to American College of Sports Medicine guidelines. Main and interaction effects of the responses were analyzed using factorial ANOVA. Significance was set at p \u3c 0.05. All analyses were performed using SPSS. RESULTS: PA was positively correlated with SQ (r = .009, p =.473) and with MT (r = .246, p = .027). SQ was negatively correlated with MT (r = -.470, p = .000). PA (F1,58 = 10.939, p = .002, η2 = .159) and QS (F1,58 = 23.051, p = .000, η2 = .284) had a main effect on MT. The interaction of PA and QS had a buffering moderating effect on MT (F1,58 = 12.394, p = .001, η2 = .176). CONCLUSION: Evidence was found for all but the first hypothesis. PA-participants tending to be mentally tougher than the non-PA ones. Poor sleepers, on average, were mentally tougher than the good sleepers. The buffering effect indicates that the non-PA individuals with poor quality of sleep are the mentally toughest ones, followed by PA individuals with poor quality of sleep. Non-PA individuals with good quality of sleep present the lowest MT levels. In regards to developing mental toughness the authors suggest that: a) PA should be prescribed to good quality of sleepers and b) in poor quality sleepers focus should be placed on sleep before PA. Such findings may be useful to exercise and health-related practitioners when prescribing PA in a wide variety of individuals that report sleep quality issues in relation to MT capacities

Sex Moderates the Fitness Tests - Performance Index Relationship in Collegiate Basketball: A Case Study

Performance indicators are used widely in sports, including basketball. Those total performance metrics are mathematical models that are used to determine the “best” athlete per game/week/season. Players with higher metrics get recruited more and/or get offered better contracts. During offseason, strength and conditioning coaches (SCCs) perform tests to determine the fitness levels of their players. Although those scores differ by sex, the fitness levels are associated with in-season sport performance and, therefore, performance indices. More insight in the fitness tests - performance index relationship in the collegiate basketball and the differential effects by sex would be valuable for all stakeholders (e.g., SCCs, sport coaches, sport agents). In the US, the Player Efficiency Rating (PER) and Efficiency (EFF) are the most commonly used basketball performance indices. PURPOSE: To investigate a) correlation between the uPER and EFF by sex and b) which fitness test most strongly correlates each index by sex. METHODS: Ten male and eight female basketball players (n = 18) from the same college participated. Several fitness tests (full court sprint, bench press, power clean, vertical jump, standing broad jump, and T drill) were performed in the off-season. Performance data, which were collected throughout the following season, were used to calculated unadjusted PER (uPER; equation not shown for space) and EFF (PTS + REB + AST + STL + BLK − Missed FG − Missed FT - TO) / GP). To examine the characteristics of fitness test distributions by sex, the means and standard deviations were generated for each sex. Pearson correlations were estimated as indicators for the relationship between the performance indices and also the relationships between each of the fitness tests and the performance indices by sex. RESULTS: Our results showed lower means and less variability of the fitness tests scores in women than men. The correlation between uPER and EFF in men was moderate (r = .359) and strong in women (r = .662). No strong correlation was found in men between any fitness test and EFF, while full court sprint was strongly correlated with uPER (r = .738). In women, strong correlations were detected between a) T drill and EFF (r = .574) and b) foul court sprint (r = .610), vertical jump (r = .662), and T drill (r = .659) and uPER. No statistical inferences were made due to the nature of the study. CONCLUSION: Our outcomes suggest that uPER and EFF reflect different amounts of information based on sex. Practical implications include that a) foul court drill scores may predict uPER more accurately in both men and women and b) T drill scores may predict both EFF and uPER more precisely in women. Future, larger-scale studies should replicate in other settings with larger samples. Limitations may include small sample size

COVID-19 Adherence to Physical Activity Guidelines Moderates the Mental Health/Toughness Relationship on Black/Hispanic Females

Physical activity (PA) improves mental health (MH). Mental toughness (MT) positively correlates to MH. Only 45% of Hispanics and Blacks over 18 years and less than 40% of US females meet the ACSM PA guidelines. PA has been decreasing during the COVID-19. PURPOSE: Investigate during the pandemic the effect of PA adherence on the MT-MH relationship on previously physically active, Black and Hispanic females. METHODS: Fifteen females (age 21.3±3.6 yr), six Hispanic and nine Black, who met the ACSM guidelines before the pandemic, completed the Mental Health Continuum and Mental Toughness Index inventories, while reporting their PA habits during the pandemic. Data analyzed with double moderation model-2 (MH=Y; MT=X). PA habits and race were the moderators. MT centered for product construction and heteroscedasticity consistent error. Moderation and conditioning significance set at pÓ, PROCESSÓ v.3 by Hayes. RESULTS: Model significantly predicted MH (F5,9=8.9,p=.003, R2=.7). MT significantly predicted MH (b=11.0, t9=3.3, p=.009). Significant MTxPA interaction (F1,9=19.0,p=.002, ΔR2=.3). PA, race, and MTxRace interaction did not predict MH. Hispanics and Blacks, who met the PA guidelines before but not during, presented significant positive relationship between MT and MH (b=2.9, t9=3.7, p=.005;b=3.5, t9=5.4, p=.0004, respectively), with Blacks to better predict MH. Hispanics, who met the PA guidelines both before and during the pandemic, presented non-significant negative relationship between MT and MH (b=-.3, t9=-.3, p=.8) having the worst prediction for MH. Blacks retained a positive non-significant relationship between MT and MH (b=.4, t9=.6, p=.6) with a weak MH prediction. CONCLUSION: Results infer a buffering (Black) and an antagonistic (Hispanic) moderating effect on the MT-MH relationship on previously physically-active females. This preliminary evidence suggests that adhering to PA guidelines during the pandemic would decrease the effect of MT on MH (less positive) in Black females and reverse the effect of MT on MH (becomes negative) in Hispanic females. Possible explanations include different response to the additional stress of PA due to cultural differences. Larger-scale studies are needed to examine the mechanistic explanation of this observation

Mental Health Best Practices in NCAA: The Bidirectional Relationship between Mental Toughness and Self-Compassion

Based on National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) reports, student-athletes’ well-being is compromised by sub-clinical issues of mental health (MH) disorders, such as depression and anxiety. Preliminary data have shown a positive relationship between mental toughness (MT) and MH, self-compassion (SC) and MH, and SC and MT. To date, possible indirect causal relationships between these three constructs have not been investigated. PURPOSE: To confirm the three aforementioned relationships in NCAA athletes and explore the mediation role of MT and SC on the SC-MH and MT-MH relationships, respectively. Hypotheses: (1) MT will correlate positively with MH, (2) SC will correlate positively with MH, (3) MT will correlate positively with SC, (4) MT will mediate the SC-MH relationship, and (5) SC will mediate the MT-MH relationship. METHODS: The Mental Toughness Index, the Self-Compassion Scale, and the Mental Health Continuum-Short Form were uploaded on Qualtrics. NCAA athletes were invited to participate via email. The sample (n=466) was predominantly Division III, White, female, freshmen, soccer players, and in-season (Mage=19.8, SD=1.8). The analysis consisted of two parts. In the first, bivariate correlations were computed among MT, SC, and MH. In the second, a structural equation model was constructed to test the bidirectional relationship between MT and SC, where MT and SC also had direct effects on MH. All analyses were completed in R. RESULTS: The findings showed a positive relationship between MT and MH (r=0.371, pr=0.461, pr=0.533, pCONCLUSION: Our positive correlation results are in accordance with Gucciardi, Hanton, and Fleming (2017), Neff, Rude, and Kirkpatrick (2007), Wilson, Bennett, Mosewich, Faulkner, and Crocker (2018), and Ales, Kurzum, Deal, and Stamatis (2018). The full bidirectional model analysis revealed that MT is associated with increases in SC and increases in both MT and SC are associated with increases in MH. Therefore and concerning updating mental health best practices, both MT and SC psychological skill training can potentially increase MH levels. However, to most appropriately increase athletes’ MH, stakeholders should prioritize MT, over and above SC, but not to its detriment. Possible limitations include self-assessment and athletes representing three institutions only. Similar, larger-scale research projects are needed in the future

Functional Social Support Moderates Stress on Depression in Individuals with CID during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Two-Wave Study.

Depression is a common psychological experience for those living with a chronic illness and disease (CID). Social support (SS) can influence psychological health by regulating emotional functioning. The functional domain of SS refers to supportive exchange, including the emotional and instrumental functions. Public health measures during the COVID-19 pandemic include social distancing and isolation, which have impacted functional aspects of SS. The health risks of being isolated are comparable to the risks linked to obesity, blood pressure, and cigarette smoking. PURPOSE: To investigate the moderating effect of functional SS on the stress-depression relationship on individuals with CID during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: Two waves of data were collected from a US sample: Apr. ’20: N = 321; Jun. ’20: N = 238. Participants completed the Patient Health Questionnaire–9 (depression symptoms), the Medical Outcomes Study–Social Support Survey–8 (perceived social support), and the Perceived Stress Scale–10 (perceived stress). For each wave of data, social support was entered as a moderator of the stress-depression relationship via multiple regression. RESULTS: The moderation models were estimated separately by wave. In the first wave, there was a negative but nonsignificant moderating effect (b = -0.19, p = .10) of social support on the stress-depression relationship (R2 = 51). In the second wave, the moderating relationship of social support doubled in magnitude (b = -0.30, p = .03, R2 = .57). During the COVID pandemic, functional social support weakened the association between stress and depression. CONCLUSION: Given the increased risk for social isolation and negative social exchange among people with CID during the COVID-19 pandemic, practitioners in rehabilitation psychology need to be informed about the potential implications of a lack of SS for the psychological health of the CID clients they work with. Drawing from the stress-buffering model and Lazarus et al.’s stress and coping theory (Lazarus, 1966; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), our findings indicate that increased levels of perceived support can reduce the effects of stress on depression during the pandemic by contributing to fewer negative appraisals. Interventions targeting the particular functions of emotional (e.g., opportunities for emotional expression and venting) and instrumental (e.g., material aid) support could have immediate implications for facilitating rehabilitation outcomes (e.g., quality of life, interpersonal functioning, psychiatric symptomatology) during this public health crisis

The Effect of a Division 1 Women’s Basketball Strength and Conditioning Protocol on Mental Toughness

International Journal of Exercise Science 16(5): 315-326, 2023. Mental toughness (MT) is a popularized term in sports since it has been found to be positively related to performance. Self-assessment is the most common method of MT data collection. In the strength and conditioning (S&C) context, MT research has focused on males with a notable lack of female participants. Division 1 NCAA strength and conditioning coaches (SCC) spend more hours with their athletes during offseason training than any other coach. The purpose of this study was to measure the perceived effectiveness of an off-season S&C training regimen on MT levels of female athletes while also examining the differences in these perceptions between athletes, teammates, and their SCC. Following a quasi-experimental, longitudinal design, 12 student-athletes assessed their own (n = 58) and one teammate’s (n = 58) levels of MT using the Mental Toughness Index five times over their off-season training S&C regimen. The SCC rated his players, as well (n = 60). MT levels increased significantly post-intervention [F (1, 23) = 7.27, p = .001]. The student-athletes perceived the effect of the intervention as more substantial compared to the SCC [F (1, 117) = 49.03, p \u3c .001]. A more compatible perception of MT was found between athlete and teammate; no statistical significance was observed [F (1, 115) = 1.51, p = .221]. Evidence to support that this off-season S&C program worked regarding increasing MT levels was found. Our findings indicate compatibility between athletes, but not between athletes and coach, in recognizing this construct

Achilles Tendon Rupture – Young Adult Female Volleyball Player

CASE HISTORY: A 25-year-old professional volleyball player, who was playing in a game in Iceland, was transitioning off the net back-pedaling and pivoting as she felt something pop in her right calf. Initially, the athlete denied having any pain but was unable to plantarflex her foot or weight bear. At the time of injury, she was taking Sertraline (HCL 50 mg), Trazodone (50 mg), Wellbutrin XL (Bupropion HCL) 150 mg, Adderall (5mg) and birth control. PHYSICAL EXAM: The athlete was evaluated at an emergency room, where a Thompson squeeze test was performed and determined positive for an acute Achilles tendon rupture. The athlete was placed in a soft cast and was scheduled to be treated nonoperatively. DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSES: Acute Achilles tendon peritendinitis, medial gastrocnemius tear, calf muscle strain or rupture, posterior tibialis stress syndrome, posterior tibialis tendon injury, and peroneal injury. TESTS & RESULTS: Approximately one week after her initial diagnosis, she made arrangements to return to the US and to be re-evaluated by an Orthopedic surgeon. During the evaluation, the athlete reported pain over the Achilles tendon. Objectively, another positive Thompson squeeze test was performed. There was swelling over the Achilles tendon and a definite defect on the distal ⅓ of the tendon. There was no pain over the insertion point at the calcaneus or calf pain. An Ultrasound Duplex Doppler scan was performed to confirm the initial diagnosis and assess for deep vein thrombosis (DVT). Gray scale, color and imaging of the deep venous system of the right leg was performed from the level of the common femoral vein down to the level of the popliteal vein. There was no echogenic clot seen within the venous lumen. The veins tested exhibited normal compression and augmentation properties with color flow demonstrated within the tested veins. There was no evidence of DVT in the right leg. Evaluation before surgery showed obvious edema over her Achilles and a definite defect on the distal third of her Achilles. Non-operative and operative options were discussed. Surgery was elected due to nature of her sport. The athlete was made aware of the complications of surgery for this injury and the procedure was scheduled for the next day. FINAL DIAGNOSIS: Right Achilles tendon rupture. DISCUSSION: The most common mechanism of this injury is a forceful contraction of the calf and when the foot is placed into overpronation. The nature of the athlete\u27s sport made her more susceptible to this type of injury. However, it is relatively unusual for an athlete of her age/sex without previous medical history. Causes of Achilles rupture include tendinopathy, which is associated with overactivity of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The combination of those medications could lead to serotonin syndrome, which indicates an overactive SNS. It is possible that the duration and the interaction between this medley of medications may have increased her susceptibility to injury. OUTCOME OF THE CASE: Open repair of right Achilles tendon rupture. RETURN TO ACTIVITY AND FURTHER FOLLOW-UP: Based on physical therapy notes, there was swelling but the incision was well healed with little tenderness. Slowly, she regained ROM and her strength. The right Achilles was noted to be thicker than the contralateral side. She voluntarily discontinued all medications shortly after the surgery. After several months of extensive rehabilitation and strengthening, she was able to return to the same level of performance