Coaching effectiveness: the coach–athlete relationship at its heart

Coaching has been often viewed as a context within which coaches operate to largely bring about changes in athlete's performance and wellbeing. One key factor to successful outcomes in coaching is the quality of the relationship between coaches and athletes. In this article, I propose that the coach–athlete relationship is at the heart of coaching. Moreover, the aim is to describe and explain how the quality of the relationship coaches and athletes develop and maintain over the course of their sporting partnership alongside coaches and athletes’ knowledge and outcomes, form a system that is capable of defining coaching effectiveness and success

The concept of rules in the coach-athlete relationship

This paper presents a study that aimed to explore the rules of the coach-athlete relationship. Using semi-structured interviews, data were obtained from a sample of British athletes (n = 15) and an independent sample of British coaches (n = 15). Content analysis was employed to analyse the data. Results indicated that athletes’ and coaches’ perceptions of relationship rules were corresponding. Rules appeared to guide the conduct of the “professional relationship” (e.g., by respecting one another) and the conduct of “business” (e.g., by being prepared to instruct and learn skills). The main functions of relationship rules were to minimise interpersonal conflict (e.g., arguments) and provide rewards (e.g., happiness). It was also evidenced that interpersonal dimensions that define the quality of the coach-athlete relationship served as rules that increased reward and reduced conflict

On understanding the nature of interpersonal conflict between coaches and athletes

Conflict is a part of coach-athlete relationships and should be carefully considered as it can have effects on the quality of coaching and the level of performance. Despite its practical relevance, there is a dearth of research around coach-athlete conflict. Therefore, the current study aimed to explore the characteristics and topics of conflict, as well as coaches and athletes’ emotional, cognitive and behavioural experiences during conflict. A total of 22 independent coaches and athletes participated in semi-structured interviews evolving around the nature of interpersonal conflict. After all interviews were transcribed, a deductive-inductive content analysis was conducted. This was guided by the interview schedule as well as the by the conceptual framework of conflict in sport relationships (Wachsmuth, Jowett, & Harwood, 2017). Data were divided into five main categories: Conflict characteristics and conflict topics, as well as conflict cognitions, emotions, and behaviours. Findings highlighted the variety of ways in which participants understood and interpreted interpersonal conflict and how their impressions of conflict influenced its evolving process. Considering the participants’ cognitive, emotional and behavioural expressions of conflict, it became apparent that conflict can be described through uncertain, escalating and problem-orientated responses. Practical applications concerning (mal-) adaptive responses to conflict are discussed. (199/200

Managing conflict in coach-athlete relationships

This study investigated coach-athlete conflict and focused on conflict management approaches used to minimize dysfunctional and maximize functional outcomes of interpersonal conflict. A qualitative approach to data collection enabled the researchers to explore various conflict management strategies used by the participants. Within the scope of the current study, 22 high-performance coaches and athletes took part in semistructured interviews. A thorough review of the recent literature (Wachsmuth, Jowett, & Harwood, 2017) informed the interview guide that consisted of 26 questions. A cross-case content analysis revealed that coaches and athletes prevent the onset of conflict by (a) facilitating good-quality relationships and optimal working environments (implicit conflict prevention) and (b) engaging in active conflict prevention strategies (explicit conflict prevention). Further, athletes and coaches appeared to manage conflict by using intra- and interpersonal strategies, as well as by seeking out external help. These strategies were found to be challenged by a range of conflict management barriers and associated with functional or dysfunctional performance and intra- and interpersonal outcomes. Overall, the role of the coach was central to managing conflict effectively

Conflict among athletes and their coaches: What is the theory and research so far?

© 2016 The Author(s).Although social and personal relationships are vital for productivity, health and wellbeing, conflict is inevitable and is likely to cause upset and hurt feelings as well as anxiety and distrust. Despite the potentially central role of interpersonal conflict in sport, researchers have yet to pay concerted attention to exploring the nature of conflict, its antecedents and consequences. Following a thorough literature search 80 research papers were identified, of which only a small number (6) studied interpersonal conflict directly, most captured dysfunctional interpersonal processes such as breakdown of communication. The current review aims to provide a critical summary of the existing literature around the psychological construct of interpersonal conflict, including its antecedents, management strategies and outcomes within the context of coach–athlete relationships as well as other relational contexts in sport. Based on the relevant literature, a framework of interpersonal conflict is proposed, which includes a specific focus on a key dyad within sport coaching – namely the coach–athlete dyad. Future research directions and potential practical implications for sport psychology consultants, coach educators, coaches and athletes as well as other stakeholders are discussed

Cross-cultural adaptation and psychometric properties of the Brazilian coach-athlete relationship questionnaire (CART-Q), athlete Version

The aim of this study was to test the psychometric properties of the Brazilian version of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q)-Athlete Version. For this, three studies were performed. In the first, four translators and five experts in Sport Psychology adapted the CART-Q contents to the Brazilian context. In the second, 364 athletes of individual and collective sports answered the adapted version of CART-Q. In the third, an independent sample of 185 athletes answered the CART-Q and the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) to analyze the external validity of the instrument; and 50 athletes answered the CART-Q in two distinct moments for the analysis of the temporal stability. Study 1 showed that the Portuguese version contains clear and relevant questions (CVC> 0.80). Study 2 showed that the CART-Q presents satisfactory internal consistency (a> 0.70/CC> 0.70). The confirmatory factor analysis showed that the model with 11 items showed good fit [X2/gl = 3.03; CFI = 0.96, GFI =0 94; TLI = 0.94; RMSEA = 0.08] and also the existence of the second-order model. Study 3 showed the external (r> 0.40 with variable task orientation) and internal validity (CFA with an independent sample) and temporal stability (ICC> 0.70). It was concluded that the Brazilian version for of CART-Q proved to be valid to evaluate the perception of athletes about their relationship with the coach in the Brazilian sports context

Before supporting athletes, evaluate your coach–athlete relationship: Exploring the link between coach leadership and coach–athlete relationship

The overall quality of coach–athlete relationship has been shown to positively associate with coach leadership effectiveness on athletes’ outcomes. Nonetheless, others also showed no associations when each subdimension of coach–athlete relationship was separately examined. This study used canonical correlation analysis (CCA) to examine the complete set of correlations between coach transformational leadership (six dimensions) and quality coach–athlete relationship (six dimensions). A total of 213 athletes (122 male; 91 female) from various performance levels and sports completed a multi-section questionnaire. CCA revealed positive, negative and no correlations between the coach transformational leadership and coach–athlete relationship variable sets. For example, the Direct Commitment dimension of the coach–athlete relationship was negatively related to the Individualised Support dimension and positively associated with the High-Performance Expectation dimension of coach transformational leadership. In light of these results, we discuss whether viewing the coach–athlete relationship as an inherent dimension embedded within the conceptualisation of coach leadership is suitable and accurate

Coach leadership in a crisis context: Investigating effective coach behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic with a process view

Introduction: Drawing from the crisis leadership conceptualization, this study aims to investigate coaches’ opinion patterns on effective leadership behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study used a process view to explore how coaches as leaders act in pre, during, and post-crisis phases.  Method: Thirty-two fulltime professional coaches (28 males and 4 females) from individual and team sports who experienced the entire COVID-19 pandemic from January 2020 to July 2021 in the United Kingdom were invited to express their perceptions of effective leadership behaviors. The study used Q methodology to analyze coaches’ perceptions and experiences.  Result: The study revealed that the most effective coach leadership behaviors occurred during-crisis phase, which has the most positive ratings (n = 48) compared to the pre-and post-crisis phases (n = 18). The study’s main findings highlighted different phases of the COVID-19 pandemic demand various effective countermeasures from coaches. These practical and successful experiences were summarized as: division of labor, athlete-centered, team-driven, consulting, safe environment, and online coaching.  Discussion: The findings of this study further highlight (1) the importance of coach leadership in creating a safe environment as it provides a much better platform to prepare for a pre-crisis stage, (2) that coaches should employ more positive than negative behaviors while interacting with team members more frequently especially during the crisis period, reducing athletes’ negative feelings such as anxiety and worry, and (3) that the online training-related activities and interactions during the crisis time can be expanded to noncrisis times, as a crisis event can have positive implications for the future if handled properly.</p

On understanding the role of need thwarting in the association between athlete attachment and well/ill-being

Grounded in attachment theory and basic psychological needs theory, the current study aimed to examine the mediating role of basic psychological need thwarting between perceptions of athlete attachment to the coach and indexes of athlete well/ill-being. A sample of athletes (N=241) participating in various organized sports completed a multisection questionnaire assessing the main study variables. Bootstrap mediation analysis revealed that the perceived psychological needs of thwarted autonomy and competence within the coach relational context mediated the associations between athletes' perceptions of insecure attachments to the coach and experiences of life satisfaction and negative affect. Analysis also revealed that the perceived psychological needs of thwarted competence and relatedness within the sport context mediated the associations between athletes' attachment style and experiences of performance satisfaction, life satisfaction, depression, and negative affect. Overall, the findings of the study highlight that the examination of negative aspects of sport participation may facilitate a more complete understanding of athletes' psychological functioning

Conceptual and measurement issues of the complementarity dimension of the coach-athlete relationship across cultures

Objectives: Grounded in the 3Cs model of the coach-athlete relationship, this multi-study outlined the development of two scales that measure coaches' dominant behaviors and athletes' submissive behaviors. Method & results: In study 1, a pool of items was generated based on relevant literatures and interviews. The item pool was then assessed by an expert panel including academics, athletes and coaches. In Study 2 and Study 3, construct and criterion validity, as wells as internal reliability of the refined items were tested with a sample of elite coaches and athletes. Analyses revealed that Coach Dominant Behavior Scale (CDB-S) and Athlete Submissive Behavior Scale (ASB-S) possessed sound psychometric properties. In Study 4, the measurement invariance of the 10-item ASB-S was assessed across gender and five countries: Britain, China, Greece, Spain, and Sweden. Results supported the full structural invariance of the ASB-S. Conclusion: Overall, the items of both CDB-S and ASB-S were found to be psychometrically sound. The discussion highlights the contributions these findings make on both conceptual and measurement levels as well as the opportunities it opens up for research with practical relevance