Design and Optimization of an α‑Helical Bundle Dimer Cell-Penetrating Peptide for <i>In Vivo</i> Drug Delivery

To deliver membrane-impermeable drugs into eukaryotic cells, a lot of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) were discovered. Previously we designed an amphipathic α-helical peptide which dimerizes itself via its two C-residues. This bis-disulfide-linked dimeric bundle, LK-3, has remarkable cell-penetrating ability at nanomolar concentration, which is an essential prerequisite for CPP. In an effort to optimize the sequence of LK-3, we adjusted its length and evaluated changes in the dimerization rate. We found that a 10-amino-acid monomer has the fastest dimerization rate and subsequently modified its hydrophobic and hydrophilic residues to construct a small peptide library. The evaluation of cell permeability of these derivatives showed that their cell-penetrating ability is comparable to that of the LK-3, except V- or H-containing ones. In this library, diLR10 was found to display fast nanomolar cell membrane penetration, low toxicity, and ease of production. The methotrexate (MTX) conjugate of diLR10, MTX-diLR10, has a 19-fold increased efficacy over MTX in MDA-MB-231 cells and efficiently deflates lesions in a rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in vivo mouse model

Nonhemolytic Cell-Penetrating Peptides: Site Specific Introduction of Glutamine and Lysine Residues into the α‑Helical Peptide Causes Deletion of Its Direct Membrane Disrupting Ability but Retention of Its Cell Penetrating Ability

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) often have cationic and amphipathic characteristics that are commonly associated with α-helical peptides. These features give CPPs both membrane demolishing and penetrating abilities. To make CPPs safe for biomedical applications, their toxicities resulting from their membrane demolishing abilities must be removed while their cell penetrating abilities must be retained. In this study, we systematically constructed mutants of the amphipathic α-helical model peptide (LKK­L­L­K­L­L­K­K­L­L­K­LAG, LK peptide). The hydrophobic amino acid leucine in the LK peptide was replaced with hydrophilic amino acids to reduce hemolytic or cell toxicity. Most of the mutants were found to have weakened membrane disrupting abilities, but their cell penetrating abilities were also weakened. However, the L8Q and L8K mutants were found to have low micromolar range cell penetrating ability and almost no membrane disrupting ability. These selected mutants utilize energy-dependent endocytosis mechanisms instead of an energy-independent direct cell penetrating mechanism to enter cells. In addition, the mutants can be used to deliver the anticancer drug methotrexate (MTX) to cells, thereby overcoming resistance to this drug. To determine if the effect of these mutations on the membrane disrupting and cell penetrating abilities is general, Q and K mutations of the natural amphipathic α-helical antimicrobial peptide (AMP), LL37, were introduced. Specific positional Q and K mutants of LL37 were found to have lower hemolytic toxicities and preserved the ability to penetrate eukaryotic cells such as MDA-MB-231 cells. Taken together, observations made in this work suggest that interrupting the global hydrophobicity of amphipathic α-helical CPPs and AMPs, by replacing hydrophobic residues with mildly hydrophilic amino acids such as Q and K, might be an ideal strategy for constructing peptides that have strong cell penetrating abilities and weak cell membrane disrupting abilities

Apoptosis Inducing, Conformationally Constrained, Dimeric Peptide Analogs of KLA with Submicromolar Cell Penetrating Abilities

The apoptosis inducing KLA peptide, (KLAKLAK)₂, possesses an ability to disrupt mitochondrial membranes. However, this peptide has a poor eukaryotic cell penetrating potential and, as a result, it requires the assistance of other cell penetrating peptides for effective translocation in micromolar concentrations. In an effort to improve the cell penetrating potential of KLA, we have created a library in which pairs of residues on its hydrophobic face are replaced by Cys. The double Cys mutants were then transformed to bundle dimers by oxidatively generating two intermolecular disulfide bonds. We envisioned that once transported into cells, the disulfide bonds would undergo reductive cleavage to generate the monomeric peptides. The results of these studies showed that one of the mutant peptides, dimer B, has a high cell penetrating ability that corresponds to 100% of fluorescence positive cells at 250 nM. Even though dimer B induces disruption of the mitochondrial potential and cytochrome c release followed by caspase activation at submicromolar concentrations, it displays an LD₅₀ of 1.6 μM under serum conditions using HeLa cells. Taken together, the results demonstrate that the strategy involving formation of bundle dimeric peptides is viable for the design of apoptosis inducing KLA peptide that translocate into cells at submicromolar concentrations

Screening of Pre-miRNA-155 Binding Peptides for Apoptosis Inducing Activity Using Peptide Microarrays

MicroRNA-155, one of the most potent miRNAs that suppress apoptosis in human cancer, is overexpressed in numerous cancers, and it displays oncogenic activity. Peptide microarrays, constructed by immobilizing 185 peptides containing the C-terminal hydrazide onto epoxide-derivatized glass slides, were employed to evaluate peptide binding properties of pre-miRNA-155 and to identify its binding peptides. Two peptides, which were identified based on the results of peptide microarray and in vitro Dicer inhibition studies, were found to inhibit generation of mature miRNA-155 catalyzed by Dicer and to enhance expression of miRNA-155 target genes in cells. In addition, the results of cell experiments indicate that peptide inhibitors promote apoptotic cell death via a caspase-dependent pathway. Finally, observations made in NMR and molecular modeling studies suggest that a peptide inhibitor preferentially binds to the upper bulge and apical stem-loop region of pre-miRNA-155, thereby suppressing Dicer-mediated miRNA-155 processing

Photoswitching of Cell Penetration of Amphipathic Peptides by Control of α‑Helical Conformation

We stapled an amphipathic peptide mainly consisting of leucine (L) and lysine (K) by an azobenzene (Ab) linker for photocontrol of the secondary structure. The <i>cis</i>–<i>trans</i> isomerization of the Ab moieties could stabilize and destabilize the α-helical conformation of the LK peptide along with dramatic change of associated peptide structures in a reversible manner by UV–vis irradiation. The cell-penetrating activities of the LK peptide can be readily regulated by the photocontrol, as the stabilized <i>cis</i>-Ab-LK peptide showed remarkable increase of cell penetration compared to the destabilized <i>trans</i>-Ab-LK peptide. The photoswitchable cell-penetrating peptides would provide important structural information for cell permeability as well as an effective targeting strategy for peptide-based pharmaceuticals with spatiotemporal specificity