Toponyms in Manila and Cavite, Philippines

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Contact-induced grammatical change and independent development in the Chabacano creoles

This study examines variation and change among three Chabacano varieties. While there has been considerable debate on how these Spanish-lexified creoles formed and how they are related, there has been no comprehensive comparison of their grammatical features. Based on frameworks of contact-induced grammaticalization, this paper compares three areas of Cavite, Ternate, and Zamboanga Chabacano grammar: modality, reciprocal marking and argument marking. While these creoles have typological similarities, they also have substantial differences due to variation in the grammaticalization of elements from Spanish and the different adstrates in each community. These different grammaticalization paths support theories that these varieties developed independently rather than directly from a single ancestor. Historical evidence suggests they developed under different sociohistorical circumstances during different time periods. Factors in their continuing divergence include their geographical distance, language endangerment in Cavite and Ternate, and the presence of Visayan L2 speakers in Zamboanga.Peer reviewe