France and the Bretton Woods International Monetary System: 1960-1968

We reinterpret the commonly held view in the U.S. that France, by following a policy from 1965 to 1968 of deliberately converting their dollar holdings into gold helped perpetuate the collapse of the Bretton Woods International Monetary System. We argue that French international monetary policy under Charles de Gaulle was consistent with strategies developed in the interwar period and the French Plan of 1943. France used proposals to return to an orthodox gold standard as well as conversions of its dollar reserves into gold as tactical threats to induce the United States to initiate the reform of the international monetary system towards a more symmetrical and cooperative gold-exchange standard regime.

Integrated Bragg gratings in silicon-on-insulator

Dans la littérature, les réseaux de Bragg intégrés sur silicium sont relativement simples par rapport à leurs contreparties fibrées. Cependant, la fabrication de réseaux plus élaborés permettrait d’améliorer la capacité de traitement du signal des circuits sur silicium. Cette thèse s’attarde donc aux difficultés encourues lors de la conception, de la fabrication et de la caractérisation de réseaux de Bragg sur silicium ayant une réponse spectrale élaborée. Tout d'abord, afin de caractériser la réponse spectrale complexe des réseaux, l’utilisation de filtrage temporel est proposée afin de supprimer les réflexions parasites. Cela a permis d’utiliser des algorithmes de reconstruction fournissant une caractérisation complète de ces structures. De plus, l’ajout d’un filtrage des hautes fréquences spatiales a permis de réduire considérablement le bruit des mesures. Par la suite, les principales sources de distorsions de la réponse spectrale des réseaux ont été identifiées, soit la rugosité des guides et la variation de leur épaisseur. L’impact de ces phénomènes a été étudié numériquement et analytiquement et, pour la première fois, la longueur de corrélation de ces sources de bruit a été caractérisée expérimentalement sur une longueur suffisante. Finalement, deux techniques permettant de diminuer l’impact de ces phénomènes ont été proposées, ce qui a permis de fabriquer les réseaux de Bragg sur silicium ayant la plus petite largeur de bande publiée à ce jour. Également, nous avons fait les premières démonstrations d’apodisation de réseaux de Bragg utilisant uniquement la phase de ces derniers (c.-à-d. apodisation en phase et par superposition). Contrairement aux techniques déjà proposées, ces dernières ont l'avantage de ne pas introduire de distorsions de l'indice effectif, ils sont plus robuste aux erreurs de fabrication et sont compatibles avec l’apodisation de réseaux à corrugations de très petites amplitudes. Finalement, afin d'augmenter la longueur des réseaux tout en gardant leur dimension compatible avec la taille des puces de silicium, les réseaux ont été courbés en forme de spirale compacte. Pour ce faire, la période des réseaux a été modifiée afin de compenser l'effet de la courbure sur l'indice effectif. Ainsi, nous avons démontré que des réseaux de 2 mm de long pouvaient être intégrés sur une surface de 200 µm x 190 µm sans ajout de dégradation spectrale et, surtout, sans restriction sur la structure du design. Ces résultats sont significatifs, car un contrôle précis de la phase et de l’amplitude des réseaux combinés avec la capacité de fabriquer de réseaux longs sont nécessaire afin de réaliser des filtres optiques intégrés avec des réponses spectrales élaborées. Ainsi, le travail présenté dans cette thèse ouvre la porte à de nouveaux designs à base de réseaux de Bragg.In the literature, integrated Bragg gratings in Silicon-on-Insulator are relatively simple compared to their fibre Bragg grating counterpart. However, elaborate gratings could improve the signal processing capability of the silicon platform. Thus, this thesis addresses the issues that prevent the design, the fabrication and the characterization of Bragg gratings having elaborate spectral response in the silicon platform. Firstly, in order to precisely characterize Bragg gratings complex spectral response, we proposed to suppress parasitic reflections using temporal filtering. The results obtained with measurement technique, when used with an integral layer peeling algorithm, allowed us to retrieve the amplitude and phase profiles of the grating thus providing a complete characterization of the structure. Moreover, the addition of a low-pass spatial filter allowed improving the characterization process by reducing the measurement noise. Secondly, the main sources of distortion of Bragg gratings spectral response have been identified to be the sidewall roughness and the wafer height fluctuation. An exhaustive study of the impact of these phenomena has been done both numerically and analytically. Furthermore, for the first time, the autocorrelation of these noise sources has been characterized experimentally on a sufficient length. Finally, improvements in the waveguide designs have reduced significantly these effects which allowed the fabrication of Bragg gratings in silicon with the smallest bandwidth published to date. Thirdly, the first demonstration of apodized Bragg gratings using only phase modulation of the structure has been done (i.e. phase apodisation and superposition apodisation). Unlike already published techniques, the later ones have the advantage to be robust to deep-UV lithography and fabrication errors. Furthermore, they do no introduce distortions into the grating phase profile and they are compatible with gratings having small recesses. Finally, in order to increase the grating length while keeping their dimension compatible with the silicon chip size, we proposed to bend them in a compact spiral shape. To do this properly, the curvature impact on the effective index has been modeled and compensated successfully by modifying the grating period. Thus, we have shown that 2 mm long gratings can be integrated on a surface of 200 µm x 190 µm without the addition of spectral degradation and without restrictions on the design structure. These results are of importance because longer grating structures with weaker coupling coefficients and a precise control both on its phase and amplitude are required in order to achieve integrated optical filters with elaborate spectral responses. Thus, we believe that the work presented in this thesis open the door to many new grating-based optical filter designs compatible with integrated optics technologies

A Hubble Space Telescope Snapshot Survey of Dynamically Close Galaxy Pairs in the CNOC2 Redshift Survey

We compare the structural properties of two classes of galaxies at intermediate redshift: those in dynamically close galaxy pairs, and those which are isolated. Both samples are selected from the CNOC2 Redshift Survey, and have redshifts in the range 0.1 < z <0.6. Hubble Space Telescope WFPC2 images were acquired as part of a snapshot survey, and were used to measure bulge fraction and asymmetry for these galaxies. We find that paired and isolated galaxies have identical distributions of bulge fractions. Conversely, we find that paired galaxies are much more likely to be asymmetric (R_T+R_A >= 0.13) than isolated galaxies. Assuming that half of these pairs are unlikely to be close enough to merge, we estimate that 40% +/- 11% of merging galaxies are asymmetric, compared with 9% +/- 3% of isolated galaxies. The difference is even more striking for strongly asymmetric (R_T+R_A >= 0.16) galaxies: 25% +/- 8% for merging galaxies versus 1% +/- 1% for isolated galaxies. We find that strongly asymmetric paired galaxies are very blue, with rest-frame B-R colors close to 0.80, compared with a mean (B-R)_0 of 1.24 for all paired galaxies. In addition, asymmetric galaxies in pairs have strong [OII]3727 emission lines. We conclude that close to half of the galaxy pairs in our sample are in the process of merging, and that most of these mergers are accompanied by triggered star formation.Comment: Accepted for publication in the Astronomical Journal. 40 pages, including 15 figures. For full resolution version, please see http://www.trentu.ca/physics/dpatton/hstpairs

The Cop Number of the One-Cop-Moves Game on Planar Graphs

Cops and robbers is a vertex-pursuit game played on graphs. In the classical cops-and-robbers game, a set of cops and a robber occupy the vertices of the graph and move alternately along the graph's edges with perfect information about each other's positions. If a cop eventually occupies the same vertex as the robber, then the cops win; the robber wins if she can indefinitely evade capture. Aigner and Frommer established that in every connected planar graph, three cops are sufficient to capture a single robber. In this paper, we consider a recently studied variant of the cops-and-robbers game, alternately called the one-active-cop game, one-cop-moves game or the lazy-cops-and-robbers game, where at most one cop can move during any round. We show that Aigner and Frommer's result does not generalise to this game variant by constructing a connected planar graph on which a robber can indefinitely evade three cops in the one-cop-moves game. This answers a question recently raised by Sullivan, Townsend and Werzanski.Comment: 32 page