Fate of Biological Control Introductions: Monitoring an Australian Fungal Pathogen of Grasshoppers in North America

In North America there are two generally recognized pathotypes (pathotypes 1 and 2) of the fungus Entomophaga grylli which show host-preferential infection of grasshopper subfamilies. Pathotype 3, discovered in Austra- lia,hasabroadergrasshopperhostrangeandwasconsidered to be a good biocontrol agent. Between 1989 and 1991 patho- type3wasintroducedattwofieldsitesinNorthDakota.Since resting spores are morphologically indistinguishable among pathotypes, we used pathotype-specific DNA probes to con- firm pathotype identification in E. grylli-infected grasshop- pers collected at the release sites in 1992, 1993, and 1994. In 1992, up to 23% of E. grylli-infected grasshoppers of the subfamilies Melanoplinae, Oedipodinae, and Gomphocerinae were infected by pathotype 3,with no infections \u3e1 km from the release sites. In 1993, pathotype 3 infections declined to 1.7%. In 1994 grasshopper populations were low and no pathotype3infectionswerefound.Thefrequencyofpathotype 3 infection has declined to levels where its long-term survival in North America is questionable. Analyses of biocontrol releases are critical to evaluating the environmental risks associatedwiththeseecologicalmanipulations,andmolecular probesarepowerfultoolsformonitoringbiocontrolreleases

Clocking in to immunity

Circadian rhythms are a ubiquitous feature of virtually all living organisms, regulating a wide diversity of physiological systems. It has long been established that the circadian clockwork plays a key role in innate immune responses, and recent studies reveal that several aspects of adaptive immunity are also under circadian control. We discuss the latest insights into the genetic and biochemical mechanisms linking immunity to the core circadian clock of the cell and hypothesize as to why the immune system is so tightly controlled by circadian oscillations. Finally, we consider implications for human health, including vaccination strategies and the emerging field of chrono-immunotherapy