Osteoprotegerin is a new regulator of inflammation and angiogenesis in proliferative diabetic retinopathy

Osteoprotegerin (OPG) is a novel regulator of endothelial cell function, angiogenesis, and vasculogenesis. We correlated expression levels of OPG with those of the angiogenic and inflammatory factors vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1/CCL2) in proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR). We also examined expression of OPG in retinas from diabetic rats and diabetic patients and measured production of OPG by human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRMEC) and investigated its angiogenic activity.status: publishe

Poly (ADP-Ribose) Polymerase Mediates Diabetes-Induced Retinal Neuropathy

Retinal neuropathy is an early event in the development of diabetic retinopathy. One of the potential enzymes that are activated by oxidative stress in the diabetic retina is poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). We investigated the effect of the PARP inhibitor 1,5-isoquinolinediol on the expression of the neurodegeneration mediators and markers in the retinas of diabetic rats. After two weeks of streptozotocin-induced diabetes, rats were treated with 1,5-isoquinolinediol (3 mg/kg/day). After 4 weeks of diabetes, the retinas were harvested and the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were determined fluorometrically and the expressions of PARP, phosporylated-ERK1/2, BDNF, synaptophysin, glutamine synthetase (GS), and caspase-3 were determined by Western blot analysis. Retinal levels of ROS, PARP-1/2, phosphorylated ERK1/2, and cleaved caspase-3 were significantly increased, whereas the expressions of BDNF synaptophysin and GS were significantly decreased in the retinas of diabetic rats, compared to nondiabetic rats. Administration of 1,5-isoquinolinediol did not affect the metabolic status of the diabetic rats, but it significantly attenuated diabetes-induced upregulation of PARP, ROS, ERK1/2 phosphorylation, and cleaved caspase-3 and downregulation of BDNF, synaptophysin, and GS. These findings suggest a beneficial effect of the PARP inhibitor in increasing neurotrophic support and ameliorating early retinal neuropathy induced by diabetes

The ERK1/2 Inhibitor U0126 Attenuates Diabetes-Induced Upregulation of MMP-9 and Biomarkers of Inflammation in the Retina

This study was conducted to determine the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) in a time-dependent manner and the effect of extracellular-signal-regulated kinases-1/2 (ERK1/2) inhibition on the expressions of MMP-9, TIMP-1, and inflammatory biomarkers in the retinas of diabetic rats. The expression of MMP-9 was quantified by zymography, and the mRNA level of MMP-9 and TIMP-1 was quantified by RT-PCR. The expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) was examined by Western blot analysis. MMP-9 expression was significantly higher in diabetic rat retinas compared to controls at all time points.TIMP-1 expression was nonsignificantly upregulated at 1week of diabetes and was significantly downregulated at 4 and 12 weeks of diabetes. Intravitreal administration of the ERK1/2 inhibitor U0126 prior to induction of diabetes decreased ERK1/2 activation, attenuated diabetes-induced upregulation of MMP-9, iNOS, IL-6, and TNF-α and upregulated TIMP-1 expression. In MMP-9 knockout mice, diabetes had no effect on retinal iNOS expression and its level remained unchanged. These data provide evidence that ERK1/2 signaling pathway is involved in MMP-9, iNOS, IL-6, and TNF-α induction in diabetic retinas and suggest that ERK1/2 can be a novel therapeutic target in diabetic retinopathy

The Proinflammatory Cytokine High-Mobility Group Box-1 Mediates Retinal Neuropathy Induced by Diabetes

To test the hypothesis that increased expression of proinflammatory cytokine high-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) in epiretinal membranes and vitreous fluid from patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy and in retinas of diabetic rats plays a pathogenetic role in mediating diabetes-induced retinal neuropathy. Retinas of 1-month diabetic rats and HMGB1 intravitreally injected normal rats were studied using Western blot analysis, RT-PCR and glutamate assay. In addition, we studied the effect of the HMGB1 inhibitor glycyrrhizin on diabetes-induced biochemical changes in the retina. Diabetes and intravitreal injection of HMGB1 in normal rats induced significant upregulation of HMGB1 protein and mRNA, activated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2), cleaved caspase-3 and glutamate; and significant downregulation of synaptophysin, tyrosine hydroxylase, glutamine synthetase, and glyoxalase 1. Constant glycyrrhizin intake from the onset of diabetes did not affect the metabolic status of the diabetic rats, but it significantly attenuated diabetes-induced upregulation of HMGB1 protein and mRNA, activated ERK1/2, cleaved caspase-3, and glutamate. In the glycyrrhizin-fed diabetic rats, the decrease in synaptophysin, tyrosine hydroxylase, and glyoxalase 1 caused by diabetes was significantly attenuated. These findings suggest that early retinal neuropathy of diabetes involves upregulated expression of HMGB1 and can be ameliorated by inhibition of HMGB1

Functional links between gelatinase B/matrix metalloproteinase-9 and prominin-1/CD133 in diabetic retinal vasculopathy and neuropathy

Retinopathy, a common cause of blindness, is a hallmark of diabetes and depends on two pathological mechanisms: vasculopathy and neuropathy. Whereas vasculopathy is well understood and has been associated with changes in gelatinase B/matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and other vasculotropic factors, specific markers for diabetes-induced retinal neuropathy are not yet described. Neuropathy may result from damages to the blood-retinal barrier (BRB) and from loss of neuroprotective factors. We studied diabetes-induced changes in vascular, inflammatory and regenerative markers and demonstrated that MMP-9 was increased, whereas prominin-1/CD133 was decreased in retinal extracts. In vitro, MMP-9 specifically destroyed prominin-1/CD133. Streptozotocin-induced diabetes resulted in BRB breakdown as a sign of vasculopathy and in prominin-1/CD133 destruction in photoreceptors as an in situ parameter of diabetic neuropathy. Both in vivo phenotypes were completely reversed in single MMP-9 gene knockout mice, demonstrating that MMP-9 mediates both diabetes-induced retinal vasculopathy and neuropathy, with prominin-1/CD133 being a critical and specific substrate of MMP-9. This functional link between gelatinase B/MMP-9 and prominin-1/CD133 explains mechanistically both the vasculopathy and neuropathy of diabetic retinopathy and suggests that specific MMP-9 inhibition is an interesting therapeutic avenue to investigate.publisher: Elsevier articletitle: Functional links between gelatinase B/matrix metalloproteinase-9 and prominin-1/CD133 in diabetic retinal vasculopathy and neuropathy journaltitle: Progress in Retinal and Eye Research articlelink: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2014.07.002 content_type: article copyright: Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.status: publishe

High-mobility group box-1 regulates the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in diabetic retina

Purpose: To test the hypothesis that upregulated expression of the proinflammatory cytokine high-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) in the eyes from patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) regulates the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) in diabetic retina. Methods: Vitreous samples from 25 PDR and 17 nondiabetic patients, retinas from 1-month diabetic rats and normal rats intravitreally injected with HMGB1 and human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRMEC) were studied with the use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, Western blot analysis and RT-PCR. We also studied the effects of HMGB1 inhibitor glycyrrhizin and targeted deletion of the MMP-9 gene on diabetes-induced biochemical changes in the retina. An assay for in vitro cell migration was performed on human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRMEC). Results: Levels of HMGB1 and MMP-9 were significantly higher in the vitreous fluid from PDR patients compared with nondiabetic patients (P < 0.001 for both comparisons) and these were significantly correlated (r = 0.5, P = 0.003). Diabetes induction and intravitreal injection of HMGB1 in normal rats induced significant upregulation of MMP-9 and downregulation of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) mRNA levels. Constant glycyrrhizin intake from onset of diabetes attenuated diabetesinduced upregulation of MMP-9, but did not affect TIMP-1 expression in the retina. Deletion of the MMP-9 gene in mice did not inhibit diabetes-induced upregulation of HMGB1 in the retina. However, the MMP-9 inhibitor inhibited HMGB1-induced MMP-9 upregulation and migration in HRMEC. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that MMP-9 acts downstream of HMGB1 and mediates the effect of HMGB1 in diabetic retinopathy.status: publishe

High-Mobility Group Box-1 Induces Decreased Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor-Mediated Neuroprotection in the Diabetic Retina

To test the hypothesis that brain-derived neurotrophic factor-(BDNF-) mediated neuroprotection is reduced by high-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) in diabetic retina, paired vitreous and serum samples from 46 proliferative diabetic retinopathy and 34 nondiabetic patients were assayed for BDNF, HMGB1, soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products (sRAGE), soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and TBARS. We also examined retinas of diabetic and HMGB1 intravitreally injected rats. The effect of the HMGB1 inhibitor glycyrrhizin on diabetes-induced changes in retinal BDNF expressions was studied. Western blot, ELISA, and TBARS assays were used. BDNF was not detected in vitreous samples. BDNF levels were significantly lower in serum samples from diabetic patients compared with nondiabetics, whereas HMGB1, sRAGE, sICAM-1, and TBARS levels were significantly higher in diabetic serum samples. MCP-1 levels did not differ significantly. There was significant inverse correlation between serum levels of BDNF and HMGB1. Diabetes and intravitreal administration of HMGB1 induced significant upregulation of the expression of HMGB1, TBARS, and cleaved caspase-3, whereas the expression of BDNF and synaptophysin was significantly downregulated in rat retinas. Glycyrrhizin significantly attenuated diabetes-induced downregulation of BDNF. Our results suggest that HMGB1-induced downregulation of BDNF might be involved in pathogenesis of diabetic retinal neurodegeneration