Relationships between each flux.

<p>(<b>A</b>) CO₂ emission flux and CH₄ uptake flux, (<b>B</b>) CH₄ uptake flux and N₂O emission flux, and (<b>C</b>) N₂O emission flux and CO₂ emission flux.</p

Seasonal and latitudinal distributions of the fluxes.

<p>(<b>A</b>) CO₂ emission flux, (<b>B</b>) CH₄ uptake flux, and (<b>C</b>) N₂O emission flux.</p

Global maps of the estimated rates of fluxes.

<p>(<b>A</b>) CO₂ emission flux, (<b>B</b>) CH₄ uptake flux, and (<b>C</b>) N₂O emission flux. The values are the averages between 1980 and 2009.</p

Comparison of the global estimates for each flux.

<p>(<b>A</b>) CO₂ emission flux, (<b>B</b>) CH₄ uptake flux, and (<b>C</b>) N₂O emission flux. The estimates are in reverse chronological order. For the CH₄ flux, the studies were divided according to the methodologies because the number of studies was large. The values in “data synthesis and simple model” include estimates from data synthesis and extrapolations. For the CO₂ flux, all estimates are from data synthesis and simple modeling. For the N₂O flux, only the estimate in <i>Hirsch et al.</i> (2006) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Hirsch1" target="_blank">[31]</a> is from atmospheric inversion, and the estimates from <i>Potter and Klooster</i> (1998) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Potter3" target="_blank">[33]</a> to <i>Bouwman et al.</i> (1993) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Bouwman1" target="_blank">[5]</a> are from process-based model. Other estimates are from data synthesis. The definitions of the bars differ (*95% confidence interval; **standard deviation; ***standard error; ****based on two different model assumptions or parameters; no-mark: no uncertainty was reported or the definition of the bar could not be explicitly identified.). The higher end of the bar of <i>Smith et al.</i> (2000) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Smith1" target="_blank">[15]</a> is 90 Tg C yr⁻¹ (<b>B</b>). The values in <i>Ito and Inatomi</i> (2011) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Ito1" target="_blank">[21]</a> are the results from four models (<b>B</b>). The values in <i>Hein et al.</i> (1997) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Hein1" target="_blank">[28]</a> are the results from three different assumptions (<b>B</b>). The value in <i>Hirsch et al.</i> (2006) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Hirsch1" target="_blank">[31]</a> is the preindustrial flux (i.e., the anthropogenic terrestrial flux enhancement was removed), and the value in <i>Olivier et al.</i> (1998) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Olivier1" target="_blank">[32]</a> is the sum of the soil microbial production, grasslands, and background emissions arable land sources (<b>C</b>). For <i>Banin et al.</i> (1984) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Banin1" target="_blank">[38]</a> and <i>Banin</i> (1986) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Banin2" target="_blank">[39]</a>, the estimate without cultivated land is plotted (<b>C</b>). When cultivated land is include, the estimate ranges from 4 to 29 Tg N yr⁻¹. For the estimates of IPCC, only the latest estimates were included (<i>IPCC</i>, 2007) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-IPCC1" target="_blank">[30]</a> (<b>B</b>,<b>C</b>). In this synthesis, I did not include estimates that appeared to be the citation of the estimates in IPCC reports. <i>Bouwman et al.</i> (1995) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Bouwman2" target="_blank">[41]</a> reported two estimates of N₂O emission flux that were calculated by overlaying the emission inventories from <i>Bouwman et al.</i> (1993) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Bouwman1" target="_blank">[5]</a> and <i>Kreileman and Bouwman</i> (1994) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Kreileman1" target="_blank">[35]</a> with a new land cover database. The estimates (7.0 and 6.6 Tg N yr⁻¹) were slightly different from original estimates (6.8 and 6.7 Tg N yr⁻¹), but were approximately the same as the originals; therefore, these estimates of <i>Bouwman et al.</i> (1995) <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0041962#pone.0041962-Bouwman2" target="_blank">[41]</a> were not included in this compilation.</p

Histograms of modeled soil GHG fluxes by gridded cells.

<p>(<b>A</b>) CO₂ emission flux, (<b>B</b>) CH₄ uptake flux, and (<b>C</b>) N₂O emission flux.</p

A New Estimation of Global Soil Greenhouse Gas Fluxes Using a Simple Data-Oriented Model

<div><p>Soil greenhouse gas fluxes (particularly CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O) play important roles in climate change. However, despite the importance of these soil greenhouse gases, the number of reports on global soil greenhouse gas fluxes is limited. Here, new estimates are presented for global soil CO₂ emission (total soil respiration), CH₄ uptake, and N₂O emission fluxes, using a simple data-oriented model. The estimated global fluxes for CO₂ emission, CH₄ uptake, and N₂O emission were 78 Pg C yr⁻¹ (Monte Carlo 95% confidence interval, 64–95 Pg C yr⁻¹), 18 Tg C yr⁻¹ (11–23 Tg C yr⁻¹), and 4.4 Tg N yr⁻¹ (1.4–11.1 Tg N yr⁻¹), respectively. Tropical regions were the largest contributor of all of the gases, particularly the CO₂ and N₂O fluxes. The soil CO₂ and N₂O fluxes had more pronounced seasonal patterns than the soil CH₄ flux. The collected estimates, including both the previous and the present estimates, demonstrate that the means of the best estimates from each study were 79 Pg C yr⁻¹ (291 Pg CO₂ yr⁻¹; coefficient of variation, CV = 13%, <em>N</em> = 6) for CO₂, 21 Tg C yr⁻¹ (29 Tg CH₄ yr⁻¹; CV = 24%, <em>N</em> = 24) for CH₄, and 7.8 Tg N yr⁻¹ (12.2 Tg N₂O yr⁻¹; CV = 38%, <em>N</em> = 11) for N₂O. For N₂O, the mean of the estimates that was calculated by excluding the earliest two estimates was 6.6 Tg N yr⁻¹ (10.4 Tg N₂O yr⁻¹; CV = 22%, <em>N</em> = 9). The reported estimates vary and have large degrees of uncertainty but their overall magnitudes are in general agreement. To further minimize the uncertainty of soil greenhouse gas flux estimates, it is necessary to build global databases and identify key processes in describing global soil greenhouse gas fluxes.</p> </div

Sites et monuments : bulletin de la Société pour la protection des paysages et de l'esthétique générale de la France

juillet 19841984/07 (N106)-1984/09

Additional file 2: of Available, Bed-sided, Comprehensive (ABC) score to a diagnosis of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection: a derivation and validation study

Comparison of the two patient cohorts. (PDF 149 kb