Family Correlates of Daughter’s and Son’s Locus of Control Expectancies during Childhood

Children who expect they can bring about good outcomes and avoid bad outcomes tend to experience more personal successes. Little is known about factors that contribute to these ‘control expectancies’. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether children’s internal control expectancies occur in the context of parents’ internal control expectancies, low family strain, and high family cohesiveness and whether these factors are more strongly related to daughters’ than sons’ control expectancies. A community sample of 85 children aged 9 to 11 years old and their parents (85 mothers; 63 fathers) completed rating scales. Fathers’ more internal control expectancies and mothers’ reports of fewer family strains were associated with daughters’ but not sons’ greater internal control expectancies, and greater family cohesiveness was related to both daughters’ and sons’ internal control orientations. These findings suggest that family factors may contribute to children’s, particularly daughters’, development of internal control expectancies

Measuring Children’s Perceptions of Their Mother’s Depression: The Children’s Perceptions of Others’ Depression Scale – Mother Version

Several theoretical perspectives suggest that knowledge of children’s perceptions of and beliefs about their parents’ depression may be critical for understanding its impact on children. This paper describes the development and preliminary evidence for the psychometric properties of a new measure, the Children’s Perceptions of Others’ Depression – Mother Version (CPOD-MV), which assesses theoretically- and empirically driven constructs related to children’s understanding and beliefs about their mothers’ depression. These constructs include children’s perceptions of the severity, chronicity, and impairing nature of their mothers’ depression; self-blame for their mother’s depression; and beliefs about their abilities to deal with their mother\u27s depression by personally coping or alleviating the mother’s depression. The CPOD-MV underwent two stages of development. First: (1) a review of the literature to identify the key constructs; (2) focus groups to help generate items; and (3) clinicians’ ratings on the relevance and comprehensibility of the drafted items. Second was a study of the measure’s psychometric properties. The literature review, focus groups, and item reduction techniques yielded a 21-item measure. Reliability, factor structure, and discriminant, convergent and concurrent validity were tested in a sample of 91 10- to17- year-old children whose mothers had been treated for depression. The scale had good internal consistency, factor structure suggestive of a single construct, discriminant, concurrent, convergent, and incremental validity, suggesting the importance of measuring children’s perceptions of their mothers’ depression, beyond knowledge of mothers’ depression symptom level, when explaining which children have the greatest risk for emotional and behavioral problems among children of depressed mothers. These findings support continued development and beginning clinical applications of the scale

Development of the Perinatal Depression Inventory (PDI)-14 using item response theory: a comparison of the BDI-II, EPDS, PDI, and PHQ-9

The objective of this study is to develop a simple, brief, self-report perinatal depression inventory that accurately measures severity in a number of populations. Our team developed 159 Likert-scale perinatal depression items using simple sentences with a fifth-grade reading level. Based on iterative cognitive interviewing (CI), an expert panel improved and winnowed the item pool based on pre-determined criteria. The resulting 67 items were administered to a sample of 628 pregnant and 251 postpartum women with different levels of depression at private and public sector obstetrics clinics, together with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), Edinburg Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS), and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), as well as Module A of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Diagnoses (SCID). Responses were evaluated using Item Response Theory (IRT). The Perinatal Depression Inventory (PDI)-14 items are highly informative regarding depression severity and function similarly and informatively across pregnant/postpartum, white/non-white, and private-clinic/public-clinic populations. PDI-14 scores correlate well with the PHQ-9, EPDS, and BDI-II, but the PDI-14 provides a more precise measure of severity using far fewer words. The PDI-14 is a brief depression assessment that excels at accurately measuring depression severity across a wide range of severity and perinatal populations.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00737-015-0553-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users

Associations Between Direct and Indirect Forms of Racism Exposure and Stress-Induced Inflammatory Response and Health in Pregnancy

Theory and research suggest chronic direct and indirect exposures to racism impact health, and stress-responsive inflammation may play a role in these paths. This study examines links between forms of racism-related stress, salivary markers of inflammation during acute psychosocial stress, and perinatal mental and physical health in a racially heterogenous sample. Pregnant people (n = 108, 27% non-white) self-reported personal and vicarious exposure to racism (racial microaggressions, online racism, overt racial/ethnic discrimination) and racial collective self-esteem, as well as affective symptoms and general physical health. Five saliva samples collected before and after the Trier Social Stress Test were assayed for pro-inflammatory cytokines and C-reactive protein. Results revealed associations between racism-related stress and greater inflammatory reactivity/delayed recovery to acute stress, between racial collective self-esteem and lower levels of inflammation, and between profiles of inflammatory responses to stress and mental and physical symptoms. We discuss implications for understanding perinatal health disparities

The effects of neonatal stress on brain development: Implications for psychopathology

Recent studies have focused on the behavioral and neurobiological sequella of exposure to early adverse events. We hypothesize that early adverse experiences result in an increased sensitivity to the effects of stress later in life and render an individual vulnerable to stress-related psychiatric disorders. This vulnerability may be mediated by persistent changes in corticotropin-releasing-factor (CRF)-containing neurons, the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, and the sympathetic nervous system. We therefore present an overview of the CRF system and its role as a mediator in the development of the stress response, major depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder. The literature pertaining to behavioral and neurobiological alterations associated with exposure to early adverse life events in rodents, nonhuman primates, and humans is reviewed. We focus on animal models that precipitate depressive and anxiety symptoms while producing neuroendocrine alterations that mimic those seen in adults with those disorders. The literature integrating neurobiological and behavioral consequences of early life stress is also reviewed, focusing primarily on infants born to mothers with depression and on infants who were abused or neglected

MATERNAL DEPRESSION IN ASSOCIATION WITH FATHERS’ INVOLVEMENT WITH THEIR INFANTS: SPILLOVER OR COMPENSATION/BUFFERING?

ABSTRACT Both concurrent and prospective associations between maternal depression and father involvement were tested to evaluate support for the spillover model (higher depressive symptom levels associated with lower father involvement) and the compensatory/buffering model (higher depressive symptom levels associated with higher father involvement). Participants in this longitudinal study were women at risk for perinatal depression in association with their histories of mood or anxiety disorders, their husbands/partners, and their infants at 3, 6, and 12 months of age. Maternal depressive symptoms were measured with depression rating scales at multiple times over the infants’ first year. Paternal involvement was measured with a questionnaire (relative perceived responsibility) and a time diary (accessibility and engagement) inquiring about a recent weekday and a recent weekend, completed in a telephone interview, at infant ages 3, 6, and 12 months. Findings consistently supported the compensatory/buffering model for depression in the first 6 months’ postpartum, along with an indication of spillover regarding maternal depressive symptoms that persist into the second half of the infants’ first year. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for clinical practice and policy as well as suggestions for future research. RESUMEN Se examinaron tanto las concurrentes como las eventuales asociaciones entre depresión materna e involucramiento del padre para evaluar el apoyo al modelo de efectos colaterales (niveles más altos de síntomas depresivos asociados con el más bajo involucramiento del padre) y el modelo de compensar/amortiguar (niveles más altos de síntomas depresivos asociados con el más alto involucramiento del padre). Los participantes en este estudio longitudinal fueron mujeres bajo riesgo de depresión perinatal en asociación con sus historiales de estado de humor o trastornos de ansiedad, sus esposos/parejas, y sus infantes a los 3, 6 y 12 meses de edad. Los síntomas de depresión materna fueron medidos con escalas de puntuación de depresión en los múltiples momentos a través del primer año del infante. El involucramiento paterno se midió con un cuestionario (la relativa percibida responsabilidad) y un diario temporal (accesibilidad e involucramiento) para requerir información acerca de un día semanal reciente y un fin de semana reciente, llevado a cabo por medio de una entrevista telefónica, a la edad de 3, 6 y 12 meses del infante. Los resultados consistentemente ofrecieron un fuerte apoyo por el modelo de depresión de compensar/amortiguar en los primeros 6 meses posteriores al parto, junto con una indicación de efectos colaterales en relación con los síntomas depresivos maternales que persisten en la segunda mitad del primer año del infante. Se discuten los resultados en términos de las implicaciones para la práctica y política clínicas y sugerencias para la futura investigación. RÉSUMÉ Les liens à la fois concurrents et potentiels entre la dépression maternelle et l’engagement du père ont été testés afin d’évaluer le soutien pour un modèle de débordement (niveaux de symptôme dépressif plus élevés liés à l’engagement peu élevé du père) et le modèle compensateur / de tampon (niveaux de symptôme dépressif plus élevés liés à l’engagement élevé du père). Les participants à cette étude longitudinale étaient des femmes à risque de dépression périnatale du fait de leur passé de troubles d’humeur ou d’anxiété, leurs maris/partenaires, et leurs bébés à l’âge de 3, 6, et 12 mois. Les symptômes dépressifs maternels ont été mesurés au moyen d’échelles de dépression à plusieurs moments durant la première année des bébés. L’engagement paternel a été mesuré avec un questionnaire (responsibilité perçue relative) et un journal (accessibilité et engagement) recensant une journée récente durant la semaine et un week‐end récent, fait par téléphone, alors que les bébés avaient 3, 6, et 12 mois. Les résultats ont systématiquement soutenu le modèle compensateur / de tampon de dépression durant les 6 premiers mois après la naissance, ainsi qu’une indication de débordement pour ce qui concerne les symptômes dépressifs maternels qui persistent durant la deuxième moitié de la première année des bébés. Les résultats sont discutés en terme d’implications pour la pratique clinique, pour les décisions et pour les suggestions de direction de recherches à effectuer. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Sowohl querschnittliche als auch prospektive Zusammenhänge zwischen mütterlicher Depression und väterlicher Beteiligung wurden getestet, um die Unterstützung des Übertragungs‐Modells (höhere depressive Symptomlevel sind mit geringerer väterlicher Beteiligung assoziiert) und des Ausgleichs‐/Puffer‐Modells (höhere depressive Symptomlevel sind mit höherer väterlicher Beteiligung assoziiert) zu evaluieren. Die Teilnehmer dieser Längsschnittstudie waren Frauen mit einem Risiko für perinatale Depression aufgrund von Vorgeschichten zu Stimmungs‐ oder Angststörungen, ihre Ehemänner/Partner und ihre Kinder im Alter von 3, 6 und 12 Monaten. Die mütterlichen depressiven Symptome wurden mit Depressions‐Rating‐Skalen zu mehreren Zeitpunkten über das erste Jahr der Säuglinge hinweg gemessen. Die väterliche Beteiligung wurde mit einem Fragebogen (relative wahrgenommene Verantwortung) und einem Zeittagebuch (Zugänglichkeit und Engagement) mit Fragen zu einem aktuellen Wochentag und dem letzten Wochenende in einem Telefoninterview 3, 6 und 12 Monate nach der Geburt des Säuglings erfasst. Die Ergebnisse zeigten durchweg eine starke Unterstützung des Ausgleichs‐/Puffer‐Modells für Depression in den ersten 6 Monaten nach der Geburt, einhergehend mit einem Hinweis auf Übertragung im Hinblick auf mütterliche depressive Symptome, die in der zweiten Hälfte des ersten Säuglingsjahrs bestehen bleiben. Die Ergebnisse werden im Hinblick auf Implikationen für die klinische Praxis und Politik und Anregungen für die zukünftige Forschung diskutiert. ABSTRACT 抄録：波及モデル spillover model （低い父親の関与を伴う高いレベルの抑うつ症状）と代償／緩衝モデル compensatory/buffering model （高い父親の関与を伴う高いレベルの抑うつ症状）を支持するかを評価するために、母親のうつと父親の関与の間の、同時の関連および将来の関連の両者が調査された。この縦断研究に参加したのは、気分障害または不安障害の病歴、夫／パートナー、そして3,6,12か月時の乳児との関連で、周産期うつ病のリスクがある女性だった。母親の抑うつ症状は、抑うつ評価尺度で、乳児の最初の1年間の間に複数回測定された。父親の関与は、乳児が3,6,12か月の時に、電話面接で行われた、最近の平日と最近の週末について質問する質問紙（相対的に認識された責任）と時間日記（近づきやすさと関わり合い）で、測定された。所見は、最初の産後6か月には、うつの代償／緩衝モデルを一貫して強く支持した。1年目の後半まで持続する母親の抑うつ症状に関しては、波及を示してもいた。所見は、臨床実践と政策に対して持つ意味と、今後の研究への示唆について考察される