Filariasis

Filariasis is one of the most debilitating tropical neglected diseases with high morbidity rate and less rate of mortality with various clinical symptoms. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) reports, about 120 million people from 81 countries are infected at present, and an estimated 1.34 billion people live in areas endemic to filariasis and are at risk of infection. Currently available drugs are only effective against the larval stage of the worms with side effects, and their repetitive use gives rise to drug resistance. Till date, no effective vaccine is available for the treatment of filariasis; to fulfill this need, new drug development becomes the priority for the researchers. This chapter reviews different synthetic and natural origin drugs, drug targets, and use of bioinformatics to discover new antifilarial agents which can control this debilitating disease, including the types of filariasis, their prevalence, and eradication programs which are discussed

Phosphorus Fertilizer: The Original and Commercial Sources

Earlier the original source of phosphorus (P) fertilizer was bones; as time passes, the supply of P fertilizer will get exhausted. Today, rock phosphate is the only raw material in the form of P fertilizers. There are two types of rock phosphates: igneous and sedimentary; both have the same phosphate mineral, i.e., calcium phosphate of apatite group. The general formula for pure rock phosphate is Ca10(PO4)6(X)2, where X is F−, OH− or Cl−. These minerals are called apatites. The most common rock phosphate mined is fluorapatite, which contains impurities like CO3, Na and Mg. Carbonate-fluorapatite (francolite) is primary apatite mineral in the majority of phosphate rocks. The high reactivity of some phosphate rocks is due to the occurrence of francolite. The major deposits are found in the US followed by China, Morocco and Russia. The US produced about 33% of the world’s rock phosphate, although nearly 50% of the world reserves are in Morocco. P fertilizers are produced from either acid-treated or heat-treated rock phosphate to break the apatite bond and to increase the water soluble P content. There are many commercially available P fertilizers like rock phosphate, phosphoric acid, calcium orthophosphates, ammonium phosphates, ammonium polyphosphate and nitric phosphates

Comparative Efficacy of Diethylcarbamazine, Nitazoxanide and Nanocomposite of Nitazoxanide and Silver Nanoparticles on the Dehydrogenases of TCA Cycle in Setaria cervi, in Vitro

Background: Bovine filariid, Setaria cervi may cause serious pathological condition such as cerebrospinal nematodiasis in sheep, goat and horses. Since TCA cycle enzymes have certain biological functions that make them essential for the survival of parasite and therefore, efficacy of diethylcarbamazine (DEC), nitazoxanide (NTZ) and a nanocomposite of nitazoxanide and silver nanoparticles (NTZ+AgNPs) was assessed on succinate, malate and isocitrate dehydrogenases in the microfilariae (mf) and adult S. cervi worms. Methods: This study was conducted in the Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India during 2015-2016. Adult and microfilariae of S. cervi were incubated in 100 mg/ml of DEC, NTZ, and NTZ+AgNPs for 24 and 6 h, respectively at 37 °C. Succinate, malate and isocitrate dehydrogenases were localized by putting the mf and adult worms in the incubating medium containing their respective substrates at 37 °C for 2 h followed by counterstaining in 2% methylene green for 15 min. Results: Maximum inhibition of TCA cycle enzymes was observed in both microfilariae and adult worms treated with nanocomposite of NTZ-AgNPs. Ruptured sheath along with nanoparticles sticking to the body surface was noticed in NTZ+AgNPs treated microfilariae. Conclusion: NTZ+AgNPs proved most effective synergistic combination against TCA cycle enzymes which blocked the isocitrate and malate dehydrogenase almost completely, and succinate dehydrogenase to large extent in both microfilariae as well as adult worms of S. cervi. AgNPs ruptured the sheath and allowed the NTZ to attach and penetrate the main body to exert maximum effect on the enzymes

Immunopathological response of leukocytes against microfilariae and adult worms in white rats infected with Setaria cervi

Aim: Aim of this study was to see the immunopathological changes against the microfilariae (Mf) and adult worms of a bovine filarid, Setaria cervi in the tissues of vital organs of experimentally infected white rats. The effect of diethylcarbamazine (DEC) was also observed on the Mf, as leukocytes especially lymphocytes produce immunoglobulins which opsonize and increase the efficacy of DEC against circulating Mf. Effect of this drug was also assessed on liver enzymes in the microfilaremic rats. Materials and Methods: Microfilaremia was established by implanting adult worms intraperitoneally and by the infusion of Mf recovered from the uterus of gravid female worms. DEC was administered orally for six consecutive days in the rats having patent infection. Differential leukocyte count was recorded every 3rd day, and liver enzymes were estimated every 10th day in both treated and untreated rats. Pathological changes were observed in HE stained sections of vital organs where Mf or adult worms were trapped. Results: Destruction and reduction in microfilarial density were noticed in microfilaremic rats treated with DEC. Trapped Mf and embedded worms revealed heavy cellular infiltrations by defensive cells which surrounded and attached with the body surface of the Mf as well as adult worms for their destruction and piece meal clearance. Immune-mediated pathology was observed in the tissue sections of lungs, spleen, and liver. Liver enzymes were elevated during the period of higher parasitemia. Conclusion: There was a moderate level of immunopathology against the Mf and adult worms by the leukocytes in experimentally infected microfilaremic rats. Mf were in the process of degeneration where they got trapped. Moderate increase in liver enzyme was noticed which was slightly more in untreated group. Although a fraction of Mf gets killed in the peritoneum, majority of them successfully enter the systemic circulation and survive for about 54 days, which is sufficient enough for conducting immunological and chemotherapeutic studies