Imaging the Woman through Tanzanian Women’s Maxims

Women’s maxims, as well as other forms of oral literature in Tanzania, are a popular genre. They are verbal arts that can be self-addressed or addressed to a fellow woman among womenfolk. This paper intends to examine the role of these maxims in imaging women in Tanzania. This study was prompted by the findings of previous studies regarding the portrayal of women in Kiswahili literature where, generally, women are depicted as inferior beings compared to men, partly due to the fact that most authors are men. Hence, we found it imperative to investigate women’s maxims that are created and uttered by women themselves. The study was also prompted by other studies worldwide on language and gender. The questions to be addressed in this paper are: What is generally portrayed in such maxims? Why do women create, use and perpetuate such maxims? How do women consider themselves in relation to men? The data of this study was collected in Dar es Salaam through interviews and observation techniques. This study is significant to literary critics, sociolinguists, gender practitioners, cultural theorists and researchers on women studies. The study revealed that women’s maxims make much contribution to group identity formation, gender relations and culture. Through these maxims women marginalize their role, empower themselves, create gender constructs and gender differences and give themselves new outlook in the modern society

Dynamics of P. Falciparum Gametocytemia in Symptomatic Patients in an Area of Intense Perennial Transmission in Tanzania.

We investigated the dynamics of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytemia in symptomatic patients attending a local dispensary in the Kilombero district, Tanzania. Consenting individuals aged one and above, with varying asexual and sexual parasitemias were treated appropriately and asked to return weekly for 28 days. Gametocyte prevalence was highest on Day 7 of follow-up in all age groups (overall 30.5%). Multifactorial analysis showed that young age (chi2 = 18.4; P = 0.004), high asexual parasitemia on presentation (chi2 = 19.4; P = 0.0007) and gametocyte positivity on presentation (chi2 = 29.4; P = 0.001) were all significantly associated with the presence of gametocytes on Days 7 and 14 of follow-up. High presentation of asexual parasitemia alone was positively correlated with higher gametocyte densities on both days of follow-up (F4, 297 = 2.0; P = 0.049). Gametocyte incidence rates decreased significantly with age (chi2 = 7.6, P < 0.005). In summary, in this group of chloroquine-treated individuals, gametocyte prevalence and incidence rates decreased with age, while densities remained relatively constant

Dynamics of P. falciparum gametocytemia in symptomatic patients in an area of intense perennial transmission in Tanzania.

We investigated the dynamics of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytemia in symptomatic patients attending a local dispensary in the Kilombero district, Tanzania. Consenting individuals aged one and above, with varying asexual and sexual parasitemias were treated appropriately and asked to return weekly for 28 days. Gametocyte prevalence was highest on Day 7 of follow-up in all age groups (overall 30.5%). Multifactorial analysis showed that young age (chi2 = 18.4; P = 0.004), high asexual parasitemia on presentation (chi2 = 19.4; P = 0.0007) and gametocyte positivity on presentation (chi2 = 29.4; P = 0.001) were all significantly associated with the presence of gametocytes on Days 7 and 14 of follow-up. High presentation of asexual parasitemia alone was positively correlated with higher gametocyte densities on both days of follow-up (F4, 297 = 2.0; P = 0.049). Gametocyte incidence rates decreased significantly with age (chi2 = 7.6, P < 0.005). In summary, in this group of chloroquine-treated individuals, gametocyte prevalence and incidence rates decreased with age, while densities remained relatively constant

Community knowledge and information communication gaps on HIV/AIDS in Iringa Municipality, Tanzania

This study was carried out to determine community knowledge and information communication gaps on HIV/AIDS in Iringa Municipality, Tanzania. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect data from both the community and health workers. Results showed that eighty-one percent of the respondents were knowledgeable of at least one mode of HIV/AIDS transmission. Sexual intercourse, sharing of sharp instruments, blood transfusion and mother to child transmission were known to be the most common ways on how HIV is transmitted. The community knowledge on the symptoms of AIDS was poor. The main sources of information on HIV/AIDS were health facilities, radio, televisions, religious leaders and relatives. The information covered in most of the health education programmes included prevention, treatment and care for AIDS patients. The understanding of HIV/AIDS messages was found to vary significantly between respondents with different levels of education and marital status. It was higher among those with at least a primary school education than in those without education. Singles and individuals with primary or post-primary education sought more new information than those who had no education at all. Among the respondents, 59.7% reported to have difficulties in adopting and utilising HIV/AIDS educational messages. Singles had a better understanding of information provided than married respondents. However, the former had more difficulties in adopting and utilising health education information. Poor utilisation of the HIV/AIDS messages was attributed to culture, poverty, and illiteracy. The majority of the respondents, 370 (92.8%) reported to often carry out discussions with their family members (including children) on HIV/AIDS. It is concluded that health education should identify community needs and address economic and socio-cultural barriers to facilitate education utilisation and behavioural changes required in HIV/AIDS prevention and control in Tanzania. Keywords: HIV/AIDS, knowledge, information communication, Tanzania Tanzania Health Research Bulletin Vol. 8 (2) 2006: pp. 101-10

Analysis of Cost Impact of HIV/AIDS on Health Service Provision in Nine Regions, Tanzania: Methodological Challenges and Lessons for Policy

Background: Tanzania is one of African countries that have since 1983 been facing the human immuno-deficiency virus-acquired immune-deficiency syndrome (HIV-AIDS) pandemic, thereby, drawing attention to the general public, the governmental and non-governmental organizations and government&#8217;s partner development agencies. Due to few socio-economic studies done so far to evaluate the impact this pandemic, a study was designed and undertaken in 2001 to analyse how this disease had impacted on health service provision in Tanzania from a cost perspective.Methods: The study involved a review of health service management information documents at selected health facilities in nine regions within mainland Tanzania, interviews with health service workers (HWs) at selected health facilities and health managers at district and regional levels as well as focus group discussions with people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWA).Findings: We noted that on average, HIV/AIDS caused 72% of all the deaths recorded at the study hospitals. The health management information system (HMIS) missed some data in relation to HIV/AIDS services, including the costs of such services which limited the investigators&#8217; ability to determine the actual costs impact. Using their experience, health managers and HWs reported substantial amounts of funds, labour time, supplies and other resources to have been spent on HIV/AIDS preventive and curative services. The frontline HWs reported to face a problem of identifying the PLWA among those who presented multiple illness conditions at HF levels which means sometimes the services given to such people could not be separated for easy costing from services delivered to other categories of the patients. Such respondents and their superiors (i.e. Health managers) testified that PLWA were being screened and receiving treatment. HWs were concerned with spending much time on counselling PLWA, attending home-based care, sick-leaves and funeral ceremonies either after their relatives or co-staff have died of AIDS, lowering time for delivering services to other patients. HWs together with their superiors at district and regional levels reported increasing shortages of essential supplies, office-working space and other facilities at HF levels, although actual costs of such items were not documented.Conclusion: The cost impact of HIV/AIDS to the health sector is undoubtedly high even though it is not easy to establish the cost of each service delivered to PLWA in Tanzania. As adopted in the present study, designers of methods for analysing impacts of diseases like this should consider a mixture of both quantitative and qualitative techniques. Meanwhile concerted measures are needed to improve health service record keeping so as enhancing data usability for research and rational management decision-making purposes

Cholera outbreak in southern Tanzania: risk factors and patterns of transmission.

To identify risk factors and describe the pattern of spread of the 1997 cholera epidemic in a rural area (Ifakara) in southern Tanzania, we conducted a prospective hospital-based, matched case- control study, with analysis based on the first 180 cases and 360 matched controls. Bathing in the river, long distance to water source, and eating dried fish were significantly associated with risk for cholera. Toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O1, biotype El Tor, serotype Ogawa, was isolated in samples from Ifakara's main water source and patients' stools. DNA molecular analyses showed identical patterns for all isolates

Patient's dissatisfaction with the public and private laboratory services in conducting HIV related testing in Tanzania

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Patient's satisfaction with both private and public laboratory services is important for the improvement of the health care delivery in any country.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 24 randomly selected health facilities with laboratories that are conducting HIV related testing, in Mainland Tanzania. The study assessed patient's satisfaction with the laboratory services where by a total of 295 patients were interviewed.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Of data analyzed for a varying totals from 224 to 294 patients, the percentage of dissatisfaction with both public and private laboratory services, ranged from 4.3% to 34.8%, with most of variables being more than 15%. Patients who sought private laboratory services were less dissatisfied with the cleanness (3/72, 4.2%) and the privacy (10/72, 13.9%) than those sought public laboratory service for the same services of cleanness (41/222, 18.5%) and privacy (61/222, 27.5%), and proportional differences were statistically significant (X²= 8.7, p = 0.003 and X²= 5.5, p = 0.01, respectively). Patients with higher education were more likely to be dissatisfied with privacy (OR = 1.8, 95% CI: 1.1–3.1) and waiting time (OR = 2.5, 95% CI: 1.5 – 4.2) in both private and public facilities. Patients with secondary education were more likely to be dissatisfied with the waiting time (OR = 5.2; 95%CI: 2.2–12.2) and result notification (OR = 5.1 95%CI (2.2–12.2) than those with lower education.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>About 15.0% to 34.8% of patients were not satisfied with waiting time, privacy, results notification cleanness and timely instructions. Patients visited private facilities were less dissatisfied with cleanness and privacy of laboratory services than those visited public facilities. Patients with higher education were more likely to be dissatisfied with privacy and waiting time in both private and public facilities.</p

Prevalence of Oral Pain and Barriers to use of Emergency Oral Care Facilities Among Adult Tanzanians.

Oral pain has been the major cause of the attendances in the dental clinics in Tanzania. Some patients postpone seeing the dentist for as long as two to five days. This study determines the prevalence of oral pain and barriers to use of emergency oral care in Tanzania. Questionnaire data were collected from 1,759 adult respondents aged 18 years and above. The study area covered six urban and eight rural study clusters, which had been selected using the WHO Pathfinder methodology. Chi-square tests and logistic regression analyses were performed to identify associations.\ud Forty two percent of the respondents had utilized the oral health care facilities sometimes in their lifetime. About 59% of the respondents revealed that they had suffered from oral pain and/or discomfort within the twelve months that preceded the study, but only 26.5% of these had sought treatment from oral health care facilities. The reasons for not seeking emergency care were: lack of money to pay for treatment (27.9%); self medication (17.6%); respondents thinking that pain would disappear with time (15.7%); and lack of money to pay for transport to the dental clinic (15.0%). Older adults were more likely to report that they had experienced oral pain during the last 12 months than the younger adults (OR = 1.57, CI 1.07-1.57, P < 0.001). Respondents from rural areas were more likely report dental clinics far from home (OR = 5.31, CI = 2.09-13.54, P < 0.001); self medication at home (OR = 3.65, CI = 2.25-5.94, P < 0.001); and being treated by traditional healer (OR = 5.31, CI = 2.25-12.49, P < 0.001) as reasons for not seeking emergency care from the oral health care facilities than their counterparts from urban areas. Oral pain and discomfort were prevalent among adult Tanzanians. Only a quarter of those who experienced oral pain or discomfort sought emergency oral care from oral health care facilities. Self medication was used as an alternative to using oral care facilities mainly by rural residents. Establishing oral care facilities in rural areas is recommended

Oral health related behaviors among adult Tanzanians: a national pathfinder survey

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The oral health education programs which have been organised and delivered in Tanzania were not based on a thorough understanding of behaviours which influence oral health. Therefore, evaluation of these programs became difficult. This study aimed at investigating the oral health related behaviours and their determinants among Tanzanian adults.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>A national pathfinder cross sectional survey was conducted in 2006 involving 1759 respondents from the six geographic zones of mainland Tanzania. Frequency distributions, Chi square and multiple logistic regression analyses were performed using SPSS version 13.0.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The rates of abstinence from alcohol for the past 30 days and life time smoking were 61.6% and 16.7% respectively, with males being more likely to smoke (OR 9.2, CI 6.3 -12.9, p < 0.001) and drink alcohol (OR 1.5, CI 1.2 -1.8, p < 0.001). Multiple regression analysis revealed that; having dental pain (OR 0.7, CI 0.5-0.8; p < 0.001) and being minimally educated (OR 0.48, CI 0.4-0.6; p < 0.001) reduced the likelihood of having a high sugar score. Whereas being male (OR 1.5, CI 1.2- 1.8; p < 0.001), urban (OR 1.9, CI 1.5 -2.3; p < 0.001), and young (OR 1.5, CI 1.2 -1.8; p < 0.001) increased the likelihood of having a high sugar score. Urban residents were less likely to take alcohol (OR 0.7, CI 0.6-0.9; p < 0.01), or smoke cigarette (OR = 0.7, CI = 0.6-0.9); less likely to be those who do not use fruits (OR 0.3, CI 0.2-0.4; p < 0.001); dental clinic (OR 0.5, CI 0.4-0.7; p < 0.001); factory made tooth brushes (OR 0.1, CI 0.08-0.17; p < 0.001) and toothpaste (OR 0.1, CI 0.1-0.2; p < 0.001) than their rural counterparts. More rural (13.2%) than urban (4.6%) residents used charcoal.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>The findings of this study demonstrated social demographic disparities in relation to oral health related behaviors, while dental pain was associated with low consumption of sugar and high likelihood to take alcohol.</p