Applicability of thyroxine measurements and ultrasound imaging in evaluations of thyroid function in turtles

Introduction: The thyroid and parathyroid glands play a major role in maintaining physiological homeostasis in all vertebrates. Reptiles have plasma concentrations of thyroid hormones far lower than mammals. Low levels of these hormones in reptiles impede thyroid hormone detection with assays designed for the higher levels of mammals. The aim of this study was to explore teaming this with ultrasound imaging of the thyroid to appraise glandular function. Material and Methods: Thyroid function of four pond sliders was evaluated based on the results of T4 analyses and ultrasound. Results: The concentrations of T4 varied considerably between the examined animals from 167.3 nmol/L. Ultrasound examination revealed uniform echogenicity and a smooth outline of the thyroid gland in all animals. Conclusion: Monitoring of thyroid function based on T4 and electrolyte concentrations is helpful in assessing the health and living conditions of reptiles, which is important in veterinary practice but problematic. Ultrasound examinations are useful in diagnosing changes in gland structure, such as tumours and goitres, and a combination of both methods supports comprehensive assessments of the anatomy and function of the thyroid gland

The prevalence of <i>Yersinia enterocolitica</i> in game animals in Poland

<div><p>Natural reservoirs of <i>Yersinia (Y</i>.<i>) enterocolitica</i> comprise different animal species, but little is known about the role of wild animals in the epidemiology of yersiniosis. The aim of the study was to evaluate the prevalence of <i>Y</i>. <i>enterocolitica</i> among game animals in Poland. The bio-serotypes and the pathogenicity markers of the analyzed isolates were determined. The experimental material comprised rectal swabs from 857 free-living animals hunter-harvested over a period of 2 years (2013–2014) in hunting districts across Poland. The isolates from bacteriological studies were confirmed by PCR and bio-serotyped based on the results of biochemical and agglutination tests. In the group of the 218 analyzed isolates of <i>Y</i>. <i>enterocolitica</i>, 133 were derived from wild boars, 70 from red deer, 11 from roe deer and 4 from fallow deer, and they accounted for 61.0%, 32.1%, 5.1% and 1.8% of all isolates, respectively. Bio-serotyping assays revealed that 91.7% of the examined isolates belonged to biotype 1A (200/218). The remaining 18 isolates belonged to bio-serotypes 1B/NI (3/218, 1.4%), 1B/O:8 (1/218, 0.5%), 2/NI (6/218, 2.8%), 2/O:27 (1/218, 0.5%), 2/O:3 (1/218, 0.5%), 2/O:9 (2/218, 0.9%), 3/NI (2/218, 0.9%), 4/O:3 (1/218, 0.5%) and 4/O:9 (1/218, 0.5%). The <i>ail</i> gene, a suggestive virulence gene for <i>Y</i>. <i>enterocolitica</i>, has been found in 30 isolates from 20 wild boars, in 6 isolates from red deer, and in 1 isolate from roe deer. Our study demonstrated that <i>Y</i>. <i>enterocolitica</i> is frequently isolated from game animals in Poland, which poses a risk of spreading these infectious agents to other animal species and humans.</p></div

The prevalence of <i>ail</i>, <i>ystA</i> and <i>ystB</i> genes in <i>Yersinia enterocolitica</i> biotype 1B, 2–4 isolates from game animals.

<p>The prevalence of <i>ail</i>, <i>ystA</i> and <i>ystB</i> genes in <i>Yersinia enterocolitica</i> biotype 1B, 2–4 isolates from game animals.</p

Geographical distribution of <i>Yersinia enterocolitica</i> positive samples in the Polish regions.

<p>Geographical distribution of <i>Yersinia enterocolitica</i> positive samples in the Polish regions.</p

The prevalence of <i>ail</i>, <i>ystA</i> and <i>ystB</i> genes in <i>Yersinia enterocolitica</i> isolates from game animals.

<p>The prevalence of <i>ail</i>, <i>ystA</i> and <i>ystB</i> genes in <i>Yersinia enterocolitica</i> isolates from game animals.</p

Results of the bacteriological study, including the number of <i>Yersinia</i> spp. confirmed by PCR.

<p>Results of the bacteriological study, including the number of <i>Yersinia</i> spp. confirmed by PCR.</p

Biotype and serotype characteristics of <i>Yersinia enterocolitica</i> isolates.

<p>Biotype and serotype characteristics of <i>Yersinia enterocolitica</i> isolates.</p