Transport of water, bromide ion, nutrients and the pesticides bentazone and imidacloprid in a cracking, tile drained clay soil at Andelst, the Netherlands

The aim of this study was to perform a field experiment to collect a high quality data set suitable for validating and improving pesticide leaching models and nutrient leaching models for drained and cracking clay soils. The transport of water, bromide, nutrients and the pesticides bentazone and imidacloprid was studied on a 1.2 ha experimental plot. Moisture profiles and groundwater tables were measured, starting in November 1997. Winter wheat was sown on 23 October 1997 and harvested on 20 August 1998. Bentazone and bromide were applied at 7 April 1998; imidacloprid was applied at 27 May when the soil was almost completely covered by the crop. The amount present in soil was measured within 2 days after application (32 sampling cores) and was found to vary between 80% of the nominal dose (imidacloprid) to 110 % (for bentazone). Manuring and soil cultivations were as usual for the wheat crop. Soil profiles were sampled at eight times (16 cores at each date, last in April 1999). Drain flow was continuously recorded and the water flow proportionally sampled for analysis of the test compounds. Groundwater was sampled periodically from sets of permanently placed filters at four depths at 16 sites. Sorption isotherms of the pesticides were measured with soil from 0-25 cm. Transformation rates of the pesticides were measured at different temperatures in soil material from topsoil and subsoil layers. Soil hydraulic properties and shrinkage characteristics were measured in the laboratory. Meteorological data (i.e. rainfall, air temperature, global radiation, air humidity etc.) groundwater levels and soil temperatures at three depths were monitored continuously. After 56 days, about 80% of the bromide dose was taken up by the crop, which demonstrates that bromide is not a suitable tracer in cropped soil during the growing season. After that time the bromide was gradually released again into the soil. Preferential transport through cracks and macropores of all test compounds was measured both in summer and in winter. This resulted in the highest concentration of bromide and bentazone measured in drain water already 21 days after application following 56 mm rainfall. Imidacloprid was already detected in groundwater at 1.3-1.5 m depth, 11 days after application, following 65 mm rainfall. High peaks in nitrate concentrations in the groundwater at 1.00-1.50 m depth and in the drain water were detected within 14-18 days after the first fertilizer application, following 94 mm of rainfall. Extreme high peaks in concentrations of ortho-P and soluble organic-P were measured in the drain water at respectively 2 days and 37 after slurry application (the only phosphorus application during the experiment). For nitrate concentrations in the drain water there were indications for bypass by preferential flow of `clean` rainwater to the drains

Pesticide leaching in macroporous clay soils: field experiment and modeling

Keywords : pesticide leaching, macropores, preferential flow, preferential transport, cracked clay soil, pesticide leaching models, groundwater contamination, inverse modeling, bentazone and imidacloprid. The presence of macropores (i.e. shrinkage cracks, earthworm and root channels) in the unsaturated zone can enhance pesticide leaching to groundwater and therefore increase the risk of groundwater contamination. In this thesis, experimental and modeling approaches were used to obtain a better understanding of the processes that affect pesticide leaching in cracked clay soils at the field scale. A field experiment (1.2 ha) was conducted to study the movement of water and bromide, and of two pesticides with contrasting mobility (bentazone and imidacloprid). A rapid breakthrough of bromide and pesticides in drain water and groundwater was observed, which is a strong evidence for preferential transport in this soil. Two pesticide leaching models were tested using the data from the field experiment: (i) the chromatographic flow model PEARL and (ii) the preferential flow model MACRO. The calibration of PEARL indicated that a large dispersion length was necessary to simulate bromide leaching in this soil correctly, which implies a large non-uniformity of solute transport. This calibration worked well for the mobile pesticide bentazone but not for imidacloprid, which is moderately adsorbed. So the solute transport in this cracked clay soil could not be described with the convection-dispersion equation even after increasing the dispersion length. The bulk of bentazone leaching was underestimated with MACRO although it simulated the leaching of imidacloprid reasonably well. The fast transport of all substances via macropore flow could be simulated well with MACRO although calibration of some sensitive and difficult to measure parameters was necessary. Considering that preferential flow may depend on the processes at the soil surface, a model that simulates water infiltration, overland flow, macropore flow and water storage at soil surface was developed. Simulations revealed that macropores at the soil surface can receive water before the maximum water storage at soil is reached. Therefore, the frequently used assumption that overland flow only starts after the maximum water storage at soil surface is attained can lead to underestimation of macropore flow for short showers

Preferential flow of bromide, bentazon, and imidacloprid in a Dutch clay soil

Leaching to ground water and tile drains are important parts of the environmental assessment of pesticides. The aims of the present study were to (i) assess the significance of preferential flow for pesticide leaching under realistic worst-case conditions for Dutch agriculture (soil profile with thick clay layer and high rainfall) and (ii) collect a high-quality data set that is suitable for testing pesticide leaching models. The movement of water, bromide, and the pesticides bentazon [3-isopropyl-1H-2, 1,3-benzothiadiazine-4(3H)-one-2,2-dioxide] and imidacloprid [1-[(6-chloro-3-pyridinyl)-methyl]-N-nitro-2-imidazolidinimine] was monitored in a clay soil for about 1 yr. The 1.2-ha field was located in the central part of the Netherlands (51°53' N, 5°43' E). The soil was a Eutric Fluvisol cropped with winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Tile drains were present at a 0.8- to 0.9-m depth and the ground water level fluctuated between a 0.5- and 2-m depth. All chemicals were applied in spring. None of the soil concentration profiles showed bimodal concentration distributions. However, for each substance the highest concentration in drain water was found in the first drainage event after its application, which indicates preferential flow. This preferential flow is probably caused by permanent macropores that were present in the 0.3- to 1.0-m layer. At the time of the first drainage event, the drain water concentration of each substance was about an order of magnitude higher than its ground water concentration. Thus, the flux concentrations in drain water proved to be a more sensitive detector of preferential flow than the resident concentrations in the soil profile and the ground water

Testing MACRO (version 5.1) for pesticide leaching in a Dutch clay soil

Testing of pesticide leaching models against comprehensive field-scale measurements is necessary to increase confidence in their predictive ability when used as regulatory tools. Version 5.1 of the MACRO model was tested against measurements of water flow and the behaviour of bromide, bentazone [3-isopropyl-1H-2,1,3-benzothiadiazin-4(3H)-one-2,2-dioxide] and imidacloprid [1-(6-chloro-3-pyridylmethyl)-N-nitroimidazolidin-2-ylideneamine] in a cracked clay soil. In keeping with EU (FOCUS) procedures, the model was first calibrated against the measured moisture profiles and bromide concentrations in soil and in drain water. Uncalibrated pesticide simulations based on laboratory measurements of sorption and degradation were then compared with field data on the leaching of bentazone and imidacloprid. Calibrated parameter values indicated that a high degree of physical non-equilibrium (i.e. strong macropore flow) was necessary to describe solute transport in this soil. Comparison of measured and simulated bentazone concentration profiles revealed that the bulk of the bentazone movement in this soil was underestimated by MACRO. Nevertheless, the model simulated the dynamics of the bentazone breakthrough in drain water rather well and, in particular, accurately simulated the timing and the concentration level of the early bentazone breakthrough in drain water. The imidacloprid concentration profiles and its persistence in soil were simulated well. Moreover, the timing of the early imidacloprid breakthrough in the drain water was simulated well, although the simulated concentrations were about 2-3 times larger than measured. Deep groundwater concentrations for all substances were underestimated by MACRO, although it simulated concentrations in the shallow groundwater reasonably well. It is concluded that, in the context of ecotoxicological risk assessments for surface water, MACRO can give reasonably good simulations of pesticide concentrations in water draining from cracking clay soils, but that prior calibration against hydrologic and tracer data is desirable to reduce uncertainty and improve accuracy

Transport of water, bromide ion, nutrients and the pesticides bentazone and imidacloprid in a cracking, tile drained clay soil at Andelst, the Netherlands

The aim of this study was to perform a field experiment to collect a high quality data set suitable for validating and improving pesticide leaching models and nutrient leaching models for drained and cracking clay soils. The transport of water, bromide, nutrients and the pesticides bentazone and imidacloprid was studied on a 1.2 ha experimental plot. Moisture profiles and groundwater tables were measured, starting in November 1997. Winter wheat was sown on 23 October 1997 and harvested on 20 August 1998. Bentazone and bromide were applied at 7 April 1998; imidacloprid was applied at 27 May when the soil was almost completely covered by the crop. The amount present in soil was measured within 2 days after application (32 sampling cores) and was found to vary between 80% of the nominal dose (imidacloprid) to 110 % (for bentazone). Manuring and soil cultivations were as usual for the wheat crop. Soil profiles were sampled at eight times (16 cores at each date, last in April 1999). Drain flow was continuously recorded and the water flow proportionally sampled for analysis of the test compounds. Groundwater was sampled periodically from sets of permanently placed filters at four depths at 16 sites. Sorption isotherms of the pesticides were measured with soil from 0-25 cm. Transformation rates of the pesticides were measured at different temperatures in soil material from topsoil and subsoil layers. Soil hydraulic properties and shrinkage characteristics were measured in the laboratory. Meteorological data (i.e. rainfall, air temperature, global radiation, air humidity etc.) groundwater levels and soil temperatures at three depths were monitored continuously. After 56 days, about 80% of the bromide dose was taken up by the crop, which demonstrates that bromide is not a suitable tracer in cropped soil during the growing season. After that time the bromide was gradually released again into the soil. Preferential transport through cracks and macropores of all test compounds was measured both in summer and in winter. This resulted in the highest concentration of bromide and bentazone measured in drain water already 21 days after application following 56 mm rainfall. Imidacloprid was already detected in groundwater at 1.3-1.5 m depth, 11 days after application, following 65 mm rainfall. High peaks in nitrate concentrations in the groundwater at 1.00-1.50 m depth and in the drain water were detected within 14-18 days after the first fertilizer application, following 94 mm of rainfall. Extreme high peaks in concentrations of ortho-P and soluble organic-P were measured in the drain water at respectively 2 days and 37 after slurry application (the only phosphorus application during the experiment). For nitrate concentrations in the drain water there were indications for bypass by preferential flow of `clean` rainwater to the drains