Soil mineral nitrogen benefits derived from legumes and comparisons of the apparent recovery of legume or fertiliser nitrogen by wheat

Nitrogen (N) contributed by legumes is an important component of N supply to subsequent cereal crops, yet few Australian grain-growers routinely monitor soil mineral N before applying N fertiliser. Soil and crop N data from 16 dryland experiments conducted in eastern Australia from 1989–2016 were examined to explore the possibility of developing simple predictive relationships to assist farmer decision-making. In each experiment, legume crops were harvested for grain or brown-manured (BM, terminated before maturity with herbicide), and wheat, barley or canola were grown. Soil mineral N measured immediately before sowing wheat in the following year was significantly higher (P < 0.05) after 31 of the 33 legume pre-cropping treatments than adjacent non-legume controls. The average improvements in soil mineral N were greater for legume BM (60 ± 16 kg N/ha; n = 5) than grain crops (35 ± 20 kg N/ha; n = 26), but soil N benefits were similar when expressed on the basis of summer fallow rainfall (0.15 ± 0.09 kg N/ha per mm), residual legume shoot dry matter (9 ± 5 kg N/ha per t/ha), or total legume residue N (28 ± 11%). Legume grain crops increased soil mineral N by 18 ± 9 kg N/ha per t/ha grain harvested. Apparent recovery of legume residue N by wheat averaged 30 ± 10% for 20 legume treatments in a subset of eight experiments. Apparent recovery of fertiliser N in the absence of legumes in two of these experiments was 64 ± 16% of the 51–75 kg fertiliser-N/ha supplied. The 25 year dataset provided new insights into the expected availability of soil mineral N after legumes and the relative value of legume N to a following wheat crop, which can guide farmer decisions regarding N fertiliser use.Mark B. Peoples, Antony D. Swan, Laura Goward, John A. Kirkegaard, James R. Hunt, Guangdi D. Li, Graeme D. Schwenke, David F. Herridge, Michael Moodie, Nigel Wilhelm, Trent Potter, Matthew D. Denton, Claire Browne, Lori A. Phillips, and Dil Fayaz Kha

Diagnosis, extent, impacts, and management of subsoil constraints in the northern grains cropping region of Australia

Productivity of grain crops grown under dryland conditions in north-eastern Australia depends on efficient use of rainfall and available soil moisture accumulated in the period preceding sowing. However, adverse subsoil conditions including high salinity, sodicity, nutrient imbalances, acidity, alkalinity, and high concentrations of chloride (Cl) and sodium (Na) in many soils of the region restrict ability of crop roots to access this stored water and nutrients. Planning for sustainable cropping systems requires identification of the most limiting constraint and understanding its interaction with other biophysical factors. We found that the primary effect of complex and variable combinations of subsoil constraints was to increase the crop lower limit (CLL), thereby reducing plant available water. Among chemical subsoil constraints, subsoil Cl concentration was a more effective indicator of reduced water extraction and reduced grain yields than either salinity or sodicity (ESP). Yield penalty due to high subsoil Cl was seasonally variable, with more in-crop rainfall (ICR) resulting in less negative impact. A conceptual model to determine realistic yield potential in the presence of subsoil Cl was developed from a significant positive linear relationship between CLL and subsoil Cl:Since grid sampling of soil to identify distribution of subsoil Cl, both spatially across landscape and within soil profile, is time-consuming and expensive, we found that electromagnetic induction, coupled with yield mapping and remote sensing of vegetation offers potential to rapidly identify possible subsoil Cl at paddock or farm scale.Plant species and cultivars were evaluated for their adaptations to subsoil Cl. Among winter crops, barley and triticale, followed by bread wheat, were more tolerant of high subsoil Cl concentrations than durum wheat. Chickpea and field pea showed a large decrease in yield with increasing subsoil Cl concentrations and were most sensitive of the crops tested. Cultivars of different winter crops showed minor differences in sensitivity to increasing subsoil Cl concentrations. Water extraction potential of oilseed crops was less affected than cereals with increasing levels of subsoil Cl concentrations. Among summer crops, water extraction potential of millet, mungbean, and sesame appears to be more sensitive to subsoil Cl than that of sorghum and maize; however, the differences were significant only to 0.7 m. Among pasture legumes, lucerne was more tolerant to high subsoil Cl concentrations than the others studied.Surface applied gypsum significantly improved wheat grain yield on soils with ESP >6 in surface soil (0–0.10 m). Subsurface applied gypsum at 0.20–0.30 m depth did not affect grain yield in the first year of application; however, there was a significant increase in grain yield in following years. Better subsoil P and Zn partially alleviated negative impact of high subsoil Cl. Potential savings from improved N fertilisation decisions for paddocks with high subsoil Cl are estimated at ~$AU10 million per annum

Subsoil constraints to grain production in the cropping soils of the north-eastern region of Australia: an overview

In dryland agricultural systems of the subtropical, semi-arid region of north-eastern Australia, water is the most limiting resource. Crop productivity depends on the efficient use of rainfall and available water stored in the soil during fallow. Agronomic management practices including a period of fallow, stubble retention, and reduced tillage enhance reserves of soil water. However, access to stored water in these soils may be restricted by the presence of growth-limiting conditions in the rooting zone of the crop. These have been termed as subsoil constraints. Subsoil constraints may include compacted or gravel layers (physical), sodicity, salinity, acidity, nutrient deficiencies, presence of toxic elements (chemical) and low microbial activity (biological). Several of these constraints may occur together in some soils. Farmers have often not been able to obtain the potential yield determined by their prevailing climatic conditions in the marginal rainfall areas of the northern grains region. In the past, the adoption of soil management practices had been largely restricted to the top 100 mm soil layer. Exploitation of the subsoil as a source of water and nutrients has largely been overlooked. The key towards realising potential yields would be to gain better understanding of subsoils and their limitations, then develop options to manage them practically and economically. Due to the complex nature of the causal factors of these constraints, efforts are required for a combination of management approaches rather than individual options, with the aim to combat these constraints for sustainable crop production, managing natural resources and avoiding environmental damage

Simulating the effects of saline and sodic subsoils on wheat crops growing on Vertosols

Soils with high levels of chloride and/or sodium in their subsurface layers are often referred to as having subsoil constraints (SSCs). There is growing evidence that SSCs affect wheat yields by increasing the lower limit of a crop's available soil water (CLL) and thus reducing the soil's plant-available water capacity (PAWC). This proposal was tested by simulation of 33 farmers' paddocks in south-western Queensland and north-western New South Wales. The simulated results accounted for 79% of observed variation in grain yield, with a root mean squared deviation (RMSD) of 0.50 t/ha. This result was as close as any achieved from sites without SSCs, thus providing strong support for the proposed mechanism that SSCs affect wheat yields by increasing the CLL and thus reducing the soil's PAWC. In order to reduce the need to measure CLL of every paddock or management zone, two additional approaches to simulating the effects of SSCs were tested. In the first approach the CLL of soils was predicted from the 0.3-0.5 m soil layer, which was taken as the reference CLL of a soil regardless of its level of SSCs, while the CLL values of soil layers below 0.5 m depth were calculated as a function of these soils' 0.3-0.5 m CLL values as well as of soil depth plus one of the SSC indices EC, Cl, ESP, or Na. The best estimates of subsoil CLL values were obtained when the effects of SSCs were described by an ESP-dependent function. In the second approach, depth-dependent CLL values were also derived from the CLL values of the 0.3-0.5 m soil layer. However, instead of using SSC indices to further modify CLL, the default values of the water-extraction coefficient (kl) of each depth layer were modified as a function of the SSC indices. The strength of this approach was evaluated on the basis of correlation of observed and simulated grain yields. In this approach the best estimates were obtained when the default kl values were multiplied by a Cl-determined function. The kl approach was also evaluated with respect to simulated soil moisture at anthesis and at grain maturity. Results using this approach were highly correlated with soil moisture results obtained from simulations based on the measured CLL values. This research provides strong evidence that the effects of SSCs on wheat yields are accounted for by the effects of these constraints on wheat CLL values. The study also produced two satisfactory methods for simulating the effects of SSCs on CLL and on grain yield. While Cl and ESP proved to be effective indices of SSCs, EC was not effective due to the confounding effect of the presence of gypsum in some of these soils. This study provides the tools necessary for investigating the effects of SSCs on wheat crop yields and natural resource management (NRM) issues such as runoff, recharge, and nutrient loss through simulation studies. It also facilitates investigation of suggested agronomic adaptations to SSCs

High subsoil chloride concentrations reduce soil water extraction and crop yield on Vertosols in north-eastern Australia

Salinity, sodicity, acidity, and phytotoxic levels of chloride (Cl) in subsoils are major constraints to crop production in many soils of north-eastern Australia because they reduce the ability of crop roots to extract water and nutrients from the soil. The complex interactions and correlations among soil properties result in multi-colinearity between soil properties and crop yield that makes it difficult to determine which constraint is the major limitation. We used ridge-regression analysis to overcome colinearity to evaluate the contribution of soil factors and water supply to the variation in the yields of 5 winter crops on soils with various levels and combinations of subsoil constraints in the region. Subsoil constraints measured were soil Cl, electrical conductivity of the saturation extract (ECse), and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). The ridge regression procedure selected several of the variables used in a descriptive model, which included in-crop rainfall, plant-available soil water at sowing in the 0.90-1.10 m soil layer, and soil Cl in the 0.90-1.10 m soil layer, and accounted for 77-85% of the variation in the grain yields of the 5 winter crops. Inclusion of ESP of the top soil (0.0-0.10 m soil layer) marginally increased the descriptive capability of the models for bread wheat, barley and durum wheat. Subsoil Cl concentration was found to be an effective substitute for subsoil water extraction. The estimates of the critical levels of subsoil Cl for a 10% reduction in the grain yield were 492 mg cl/kg for chickpea, 662 mg Cl/kg for durum wheat, 854 mg Cl/kg for bread wheat, 980 mg Cl/kg for canola, and 1012 mg Cl/kg for barley, thus suggesting that chickpea and durum wheat were more sensitive to subsoil Cl than bread wheat, barley, and canola

Carbono orgânico, nitrogênio total, biomassa e atividade microbiana do solo em duas cronosseqüências de reabilitação após a mineração de bauxita Soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, microbial biomass and activity in two rehabilitation chronosequences after bauxite mining

A mineração é uma das atividades antrópicas que causa grande impacto nos ecossistemas e o grau de degradação depende da intensidade de interferência no solo, do volume explorado e do rejeito produzido. Os microrganismos do solo e sua atividade, por participarem de funções-chave, podem fornecer indicações sobre o real estado de reabilitação de áreas mineradas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o impacto da atividade de mineração em duas cronosseqüências com diferentes estratégias (revegetação) de reabilitação em solos de área de mineração de bauxita sobre diversos atributos: C de compostos orgânicos (CO), N total do solo (Nt), biomassa microbiana, atividade enzimática e respiração do solo. O estudo foi desenvolvido em áreas pertencentes a Alcoa S/A, em dois ambientes distintos: (a) em áreas com vegetação típica de campo, predominantemente herbácea, em altitude inferior a 1.000 m, e (b) em áreas de montanhas, no topo do planalto, incluindo remanescentes de cobertura vegetal nativa representada por floresta subtropical subcaducifólia, a uma altitude de 1.600 m, denominadas serra, com características diferenciadas quanto à estratégia e ao tempo de reabilitação, variando de áreas recém-mineradas à áreas com 19 anos de reabilitação. Coletaram-se amostras compostas com três repetições em oito áreas no campo e nove na serra, em duas profundidades (0-10 e 10-20 cm), no inverno e verão. A mineração de bauxita provocou grande impacto nos atributos estudados, causando reduções nos seus valores de até 99 %. Tanto no campo como na serra, os teores de CO, de Nt, a biomassa microbiana e a atividade enzimática aumentaram com as diferentes estratégias de reabilitação. Entretanto a resposta dos atributos estudados foi diferenciada em função do tempo de reabilitação. A biomassa microbiana e a atividade enzimática apresentaram recuperação muito rápida, atingindo valores semelhantes aos das áreas de referência a partir do primeiro ano, enquanto para o CO e o Nt estes só foram alcançados de modo consistente em períodos mais longos de reabilitação (18 anos). O coeficiente metabólico (qCO2) foi indicativo do estresse provocado pela mineração, mas não diferenciou os diferentes tempos de reabilitação. Os resultados deste estudo mostram que os atributos essenciais ao funcionamento adequado do solo são recuperáveis pela revegetação.<br>Mining is a human activity with a harsh impact on ecosystems. The degradation degree depends on the intensity of soil impact, exploited soil volume and amount of mine spoil. Soil microbial activities are responsible for key functions in ecosystems and can indicate the degree of rehabilitation of mined areas. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of bauxite mining in two chronosequences with different rehabilitation strategies (revegetation) on the following soil attributes: organic carbon (C org), total nitrogen (Nt), microbial biomass and respiration, and enzymatic activities. The study was developed in mining areas owned by Alcoa S/A in two different environments: (a) areas originally covered by a tropical prairie vegetation called "campo", at elevations up to 1,000 masl, and (b) in hilly areas, on the plateau top, including remnants of the native vegetation cover, represented by a subtropical decidous forest, at elevations about 1.600 masl, called "serra". Rehabilitation differed depending on strategies and time, varying from recent mining to 19 years of rehabilitation. Composite samples were collected in eight "campo" and nine "serra" areas, in two layers (0-10 and 10-20 cm) in the winter as well as in the summer, in three replicates. Bauxite mining caused a negative impact on org C, Nt and microbial biomass (C, N and P). The values of these attributes were reduced by up to 99 % in comparison with those in reference areas (native vegetation). In both "campo" and "serra", the C org, Nt, microbial biomass and enzymatic activity increased with the different rehabilitation strategies, although the recovery of the different attributes varied according to the time of rehabilitation. Microbial biomass and enzymatic activity recovered very quickly. It reached values similar to the reference areas after the first year of rehabilitation, whereas org C and Nt only reached the reference values after longer periods (18 years). The metabolic coefficient (qCO2) was very sensitive to indicate the impact of bauxite mining, but did not discriminate the effect of rehabilitation stages. The results of this study show that after mining the essential soil attributes for soil functioning can be recovered by revegetation