Cluster size and aggregated level 2 variables in multilevel models: a cautionary note

"This paper explores the consequences of small cluster size for parameter estimation in multilevel models. In particular, the interest lies in parameter estimates (regression weights) in linear multilevel models of level 2 variables that are functions of level 1 variables, as for instance the cluster-mean of a certain property, e.g. the average income or the proportion of certain people in a neighborhood. To this end, a simulation study is used to determine the effect of varying cluster sizes and number of clusters. The results show that small cluster sizes can cause severe downward bias in estimated regression weights of aggregated level 2 variables. Bias does not decrease if the number of clusters (i.e. the level 2 units) increases." (author's abstract

Unfair Pay and Health: The Effects of Perceived Injustice of Earnings on Physical Health

While there is ample evidence that income inequalities influence individuals’ health status, the mechanisms behind this income inequality–health correlation are only partially understood. This study shows that inequalities evaluated on the basis of individual perceptions of injustice are a driving force behind this connection. Two main questions are addressed: Does perceiving one’s earnings as unfair affect physical health? Do such perceptions contribute to structural health inequalities? The hypotheses presented are based on the effort–reward imbalance model, according to which experiencing injustice causes stress, which can have a negative effect on individual health. Analyses of large-scale longitudinal data from the German Socio-Economic Panel of the years 2005–2010 show that female employees who perceive their earnings as unjustly low display significantly worse physical health, and that if employees perceive their earnings to be unjust for an extended period, this contributes to the deterioration of individual physical health in male and female employees. Employees from lower social classes, in particular unskilled blue-collar workers, more frequently perceive their earnings to be unjust. Experience of unjust earnings mediates the relationship between social class and physical health, if to a limited extent. Our conclusion is that differential exposure to unjust earnings contributes to the emergence of structural health inequalities

Kompetenzungleichheit zwischen SchülerInnen mit und ohne Migrationshintergrund im Zeitvergleich

In vielen westlichen Staaten sind im vergangenen Jahrzehnt Bevölkerungsanteile mit Migrationshintergrund1 stark gewachsen (United Nations 2016). Die Aufnahmeländer stehen vor der Herausforderung, diese Bevölkerungsgruppen langfristig in ihre Gesellschaften zu integrieren. Eine wichtige Voraussetzung dafür ist die erfolgreiche Bildungsteilhabe im Aufnahmeland. Die soziologische Bildungs- und Migrationsforschung beschäftigt sich mit dem Ausmaß und den Ursachen sog. Bildungsungleichheit, d.h. dem ungleichen Bildungserfolg verschiedener sozialer Gruppen (Becker & Lauterbach 2016; Becker & Solga 2012). Dabei hat sich für Deutschland wiederholt gezeigt, dass der soziale Hintergrund, d.h. die sozioökonomische Position der Familie, eine wichtige Rolle für den Schulerfolg spielt - auch unabhängig von den Fähigkeiten der Kinder (Schulz et al. 2017). Vor diesem Hintergrund beschreibt der Beitrag die Entwicklung der Lesekompetenzen im Sekundarschulbereich von 2000 bis 2015. Unsere Analyse von Daten der OECD-PISA-Studien zeigt deutliche Kompetenzunterschiede zwischen SchülerInnen mit und ohne Migrationshintergrund. Die erste Generation und, in geringerem Maße auch die zweite Generation, entwickelt niedrigere Lesekompetenzen als gleichaltrige SchülerInnen ohne Migrationshintergrund. Während die zweite Generation im Zeitverlauf etwas aufschließen konnte, bleibt der Abstand zwischen der ersten Generation und SchülerInnen ohne Migrationshintergrund beträchtlich. Zugleich zeigt sich, dass Unterschiede in den Lesekompetenzen stark mit dem sozialen Hintergrund und dem Sprachgebrauch zu Hause zusammen hängen

Investigating the feasibility of a factorial survey in a CATI

Andernach B, Schunck R. Investigating the feasibility of a factorial survey in a CATI. SFB 882 Working Paper Series. Vol 28. Bielefeld: DFG Research Center (SFB) 882 From Heterogeneities to Inequalities; 2014.Factorial surveys are a common method for studying social norms, attitudes, and hypothetical decision situations in the social sciences. Although they are usually applied in interview settings which allow for a visual representation of the factorial survey, they are also regularly used in computer assisted telephone interviews (CATI). However, we know little about the applicability of a factorial survey in an interview mode that does not allow for a visual presentation of the factorial survey. This paper investigates potential problems that may arise in implementing a factorial survey in a CATI by investigating how respondents of different age and educational backgrounds deal with factorial surveys of different degrees of complexity. To asses potential problems we rely on respondents’ self-reported response difficulties, a measure of response latency, and response consistency. We do not find that older respondents are experiencing or reporting more difficulties in processing the factorial survey. Respondents with higher levels education appear to produce more consistent responses

Pathways of intergenerational transmission of advantages during adolescence:Social background, cognitive ability, and educational attainment

Schulz W, Schunck R, Diewald M, Johnson W. Pathways of Intergenerational Transmission of Advantages during Adolescence: Social Background, Cognitive Ability, and Educational Attainment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2017;46(10):2194-2214.Educational attainment in adolescence is of paramount importance for attaining higher education and for shaping subsequent life chances. Sociological accounts focus on the role of differences in socioeconomic resources in intergenerational reproduction of educational inequalities. These often disregard the intergenerational transmission of cognitive ability and the importance of children's cognitive ability to educational attainment. Psychological perspectives stress the importance of cognitive ability for educational attainment but underemphasize potentially different roles of specific socioeconomic resources in shaping educational outcomes, as well as individual differences in cognitive ability. By integrating two strands of research, a clearer picture of the pathways linking the family of origin, cognitive ability, and early educational outcomes can be reached. Using the population-based TwinLife study in Germany, we investigated multidimensional pathways linking parental socioeconomic position to their children's cognitive ability and academic track attendance in the secondary school. The sample included twins (N = 4008), respectively ages 11 and 17, and siblings (N = 801). We observed strong genetic influences on cognitive ability, whereas shared environmental influences were much more important for academic tracking. In multilevel analyses, separate dimensions of socioeconomic resources influenced child cognitive ability, controlling parental cognitive ability. Controlling adolescent cognitive ability and parental cognitive ability, parental socioeconomic resources also directly affected track attendance. This indicated that it is crucial to investigate the intertwined influences on educational outcomes in adolescence of both cognitive ability and the characteristics of the family of origin

Associations Between the Big Five Personality Traits and the Non-Medical Use of Prescription Drugs for Cognitive Enhancement

Sattler S, Schunck R. Associations Between the Big Five Personality Traits and the Non-Medical Use of Prescription Drugs for Cognitive Enhancement. Frontiers in Psychology. 2016;6: 1971.While the number of studies of the non-medical use of prescription drugs to augment cognitive functions is growing steadily, psychological factors that can potentially help explain variance in such pharmaceutical cognitive enhancement (CE) behavior are often neglected in research. This study investigates the association between the Big Five personality traits and a retrospective (prior CE-drug use) as well as a prospective (willingness to use CE drugs) measure of taking prescription drugs with the purpose of augmenting one's cognitive functions (e.g., concentration, memory, or vigilance) without medical necessity. We use data from a large representative survey of German employees (N = 6454, response rate = 29.8%). The Five Factor Model (FFM) of Personality was measured with a short version of the Big Five Personality Traits Inventory (BFI-S), which includes: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Together with this, demographic variables such as gender, age, education, and income were used as potential confounders in multiple logistic regression models. Our results show a 2.96% lifetime prevalence of CE-drug use and a 10.45% willingness to (re)use such drugs in the future. We found that less conscientious and more neurotic respondents have a higher probability of prior CE-drug use and a greater willingness to use CE drugs in the future. No significant effects were found for openness, extraversion, or agreeableness. Prior CE-drug use was strongly associated with a greater willingness to take such drugs in the future. This study shows that specific personality traits are not only associated with prior enhancement behavior, but also affect the willingness to (re)use such drugs. It helps increase understanding of the risk factors of CE-drug use, which is a health-related behavior that can entail severe side-effects for consumers. The knowledge gathered can thus help improve interventions aimed at minimizing health problems

Effect of Length of Stay on Smoking among Turkish and Eastern European Immigrants in Germany—Interpretation in The Light of the Smoking Epidemic Model and the Acculturation Theory

Reiss K, Schunck R, Razum O. Effect of Length of Stay on Smoking among Turkish and Eastern European Immigrants in Germany—Interpretation in The Light of the Smoking Epidemic Model and the Acculturation Theory. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2015;12(12):15925-15936.Background: We analyzed changes in smoking by length of stay among immigrants in Germany and related them to the “smoking epidemic” model and the acculturation theory. Methods: We used data from a longitudinal survey (German Socio-economic Panel). Immigrants were identified by country of birth (Turkey: respondents n = 828, observations n = 3871; Eastern Europe: respondents n = 2009, observations n = 7202; non-immigrants: respondents n = 34,011, observations n = 140,701). Smoking status data was available for nine years between 1998 and 2012. Length of stay (LOS, in years) was used as proxy for acculturation. We calculated smoking prevalences, prevalence ratios and a random intercept multilevel logistic regression model. Results: With each year spent in Germany, smoking prevalence increases among Turkish women (OR = 1.14 (95%CI = 1.06–1.21)) and slightly decreases among men. Recently immigrated Turkish women smoke less than non-immigrant women (0–5 years: SPR = 0.25 (95%CI = 0.10–0.57)); prevalences converge with increasing LOS (31+ years: SPR = 1.25 (95%CI = 1.06–1.48)). Among Eastern European immigrants no significant changes were apparent. Conclusions: Immigrants from Turkey “import” their smoking prevalence from a country which is in the earlier stages of the “smoking epidemic”. With increasing LOS (thus, advancing acculturation), they “move” to the later stages. Anti-smoking interventions should consider different smoking attitudes in Turkey/Germany and need to discourage women from initiating smoking. Future research should also identify reasons for the possible differences between immigrant groups

Vergleich der Mikrozensus Scientific Use Files 1973 und 1976

Der Mikrozensus ist eine repräsentative 1-Prozent-Bevölkerungsstichprobe, die seit 1957 im früheren Bundesgebiet und seit 1991 auch in den neuen Bundesländern jährlich erhoben wurde. Grundlage der Auswahl ist die gesamte wohnberechtigte Bevölkerung in Deutschland, zu der im Jahr 1976 rund 82,5 Millionen Menschen gehörten. Die Teilnahme am Mikrozensus ist gemäß der gesetzlichen Regelung Pflicht. Unter Punkt 2.1 wird zunächst ein Überblick über alle Unterschiede zwischen dem Mikrozensus 1976 und 1973 gegeben. Eine Liste der neuen Variablen des Erhebungsjahres 1976 findet sich unter Punkt 2.2. Die Variablen, die nur 1973 enthalten sind, werden unter Punkt 2.3 aufgelistet. Eine Liste der Variablen, bei denen sich Veränderungen zwischen den beiden Erhebungszeitpunkten ergeben haben, ist in 2.4 zusammengestellt. In Abschnitt 2.5 werden alle Unterschiede in den Merkmalsausprägungen detailliert dargestellt. (ICD2

Vergleich der Mikrozensus Scientific Use Files 1973 und 1976

Der Mikrozensus ist eine repräsentative 1-Prozent-Bevölkerungsstichprobe, die seit 1957 im früheren Bundesgebiet und seit 1991 auch in den neuen Bundesländern jährlich erhoben wurde. Grundlage der Auswahl ist die gesamte wohnberechtigte Bevölkerung in Deutschland, zu der im Jahr 1976 rund 82,5 Millionen Menschen gehörten. Die Teilnahme am Mikrozensus ist gemäß der gesetzlichen Regelung Pflicht. Unter Punkt 2.1 wird zunächst ein Überblick über alle Unterschiede zwischen dem Mikrozensus 1976 und 1973 gegeben. Eine Liste der neuen Variablen des Erhebungsjahres 1976 findet sich unter Punkt 2.2. Die Variablen, die nur 1973 enthalten sind, werden unter Punkt 2.3 aufgelistet. Eine Liste der Variablen, bei denen sich Veränderungen zwischen den beiden Erhebungszeitpunkten ergeben haben, ist in 2.4 zusammengestellt. In Abschnitt 2.5 werden alle Unterschiede in den Merkmalsausprägungen detailliert dargestellt. (ICD2