Perceived control of physical ageing : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University

The central purpose of the study was to look at perceived control of the physical ageing process. The extent to which the people believe that physical ageing is controllable was investigated. Use of strategies and technological aids was also explored, to gain a picture of what specific things people intend to do (or have already done) to help control the physical ageing process. The study also looked at the importance of various information and support sources, and at peoples faith in technological advances to solve problems of physical ageing. The sample consisted of university students and members of community groups. Participants were 174 adults aged between 18 and 86 years of age. Fifty eight percent of the study population was male. Participants completed a questionnaire developed by the researcher. They indicated that they believed that people in general have low levels of control over the majority of changes associated with physical ageing and that people should generally accept the changes. No relationship was found between age and perceived control. Participants indicated a willingness to use a wide range of aids and strategies to help control the physical ageing process. There was no relationship found between perceived control and intended aid or strategy use. Participants indicated that all the sources of social support and most of the sources of information listed in the questionnaire could be helpful. Several additional information sources were also suggested. A moderate level of confidence was expressed in technological advancement. The implications and limitations of the study are discussed. Possible future research directions are also discussed

Axonal projections of Renshaw cells in the thoracic spinal cord

Renshaw cells are widely distributed in all segments of the spinal cord, but detailed morphological studies of these cells and their axonal branching patterns have only been made for lumbosacral segments. For these, a characteristic distribution of terminals was reported, including extensive collateralization within 1-2 mm of the soma, but then more restricted collaterals given off at intervals from the funicular axon. Previous authors have suggested that the projections close to the soma serve inhibition of motoneurons (known to be greatest for the motor nuclei providing the Renshaw cell excitation) but that the distant projections serve mainly the inhibition of other neurons. However, in thoracic segments, inhibition of motoneurons is known to occur over two to three segments (20-40 mm) from the presumed somatic locations of the Renshaw cells. Here, we report the first detailed morphological study of Renshaw cell axons outside the lumbosacral segments, which investigated whether this different distribution of motoneuron inhibition is reflected in a different pattern of Renshaw cell terminations. Four Renshaw cells in T7 or T8 segments were intracellularly labeled with neurobiotin in anesthetized cats and their axons traced for distances ≥6 mm from the somata. The only morphological difference detected within this distance in comparison with Renshaw cells in the lumbosacral cord was a minimal taper in the funicular axons, where in the lumbosacral cord this is pronounced. Patterns of termination were virtually identical to those in the lumbosacral segments, so we conclude that these patterns are unrelated to the pattern of motoneuronal inhibition

User based perceptions of on-plot sanitation systems in low income urban communities in Africa and Asia

Rates of population growth in developing country cities are straining the capacity of sanitation service providers. In spite of widespread sector recognition of the need to adopt low-cost, people centred approaches, 80 per cent of investments in the water and sanitation sector continue to be allocated to high cost technologies for urban elites. Household level, on-plot sanitation systems potentially offer a solution to the sanitary needs of the urban poor. Nevertheless, commonly held assumptions amongst sector professionals that lower cost, on-plot systems are inappropriate and unacceptable in urban communities impede-their wider application. There is little empirical evidence to justify this position. The scope of this work examines the technical appropriateness and user acceptability of on-plot sanitation options. The thesis contributes to an improved understanding of the context in which on-plot systems operate, what factors constrain their application, and what issues need consideration when deciding on sanitary options in low-income communities. The research adopted a mix of methodological techniques to improve the reliability and validity of findings, with both quantitative and qualitative methods applied during fieldwork. Findings from Ghana, Mozambique and India are included in the thesis in order to permit sampling of key latrine types used internationally. The thesis concludes that user based perceptions of the performance and acceptability of on-plot systems varies markedly to those of sector professionals, particularly in relation to plot size, satisfaction levels and reasons for absence of household latrine. Furthermore, user based criteria of performance are developed for consideration practitioners when narrowing decision making on sanitary options. The implications of the study highlight the need for integration of user concerns into strategic planning for sanitation, more effective stimulation and negotiation of demand for sanitation systems and challenges for agencies in adopting a user oriented approach. The recommendations from the thesis include practitioner focused policy changes that affect project planning and support systems for user education. Potential areas of further research interest include ranking user perceptions, an holistic understanding of excreta management processes and institutional constraints affecting user-service provider consultations

Networking in the WS&S sector

Networking in the WS&S secto

Sustainability of community-led total sanitation outcomes: Evidence from Ethiopia and Ghana

We conducted a study to evaluate the sustainability of community-led total sanitation (CLTS) outcomes in Ethiopia and Ghana. Plan International, with local actors, implemented four CLTS interventions from 2012 to 2014: health extension worker-facilitated CLTS and teacher-facilitated CLTS in Ethiopia, and NGO-facilitated CLTS with and without training for natural leaders in Ghana. We previously evaluated these interventions using survey data collected immediately after implementation ended, and concluded that in Ethiopia health extension workers were more effective facilitators than teachers, and that in Ghana training natural leaders improved CLTS outcomes. For this study, we resurveyed 3831 households one year after implementation ended, and analyzed latrine use and quality to assess post-intervention changes in sanitation outcomes, to determine if our original conclusions were robust. In one of four interventions evaluated (health extension worker-facilitated CLTS in Ethiopia), there was an 8 percentage point increase in open defecation in the year after implementation ended, challenging our prior conclusion on their effectiveness. For the other three interventions, the initial decreases in open defecation of 8–24 percentage points were sustained, with no significant changes occurring in the year after implementation. On average, latrines in Ethiopia were lower quality than those in Ghana. In the year following implementation, forty-five percent of households in Ethiopia repaired or rebuilt latrines that had become unusable, while only 6% did in Ghana possibly due to higher latrine quality. Across all four interventions and three survey rounds, most latrines remained unimproved. Regardless of the intervention, households in villages higher latrine use were more likely to have sustained latrine use, which together with the high latrine repair rates indicates a potential social norm. There are few studies that revisit villages after an initial evaluation to assess sustainability of sanitation outcomes. This study provides new evidence that CLTS outcomes can be sustained in the presence of training provided to local actors, and strengthens previous recommendations that CLTS is not appropriate in all settings and should be combined with efforts to address barriers households face to building higher quality latrines

The capacity gap in the water and sanitation sector

In 2006, WHO estimated that 4.3 million additional health workers are needed worldwide - 1.5 million health workers for Africa alone - to alleviate the current human resource crisis. UNESCO (2008) estimates that 18 million new teachers are needed to meet the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of achieving universal primary education sub-Saharan Africa alone needs to increase the number of its teachers by 1.6 million or 68 per cent. It is also expected that adequate quantity and quality of service providers is one of the preconditions to making progress towards the MDG targets for safe water and basic sanitation. Yet the human resource gap in this sector is relatively unknown. This paper outlines a piece of research that is being conducted to provide reliable data on the extent of the capacity gap in the water and sanitation sector

Community initiatives in solid waste

Over recent decades one of the commonest characteristics in developing nations has been the disparity between rapid urban population growth and infrastructure provision. The product of this mismatch, described as ‘urbanisation without health’ 1 is the catalogue of overcrowding, growth in illegal settlements, uncollected household waste, and the absence of water, sanitation and other basic facilities which are typical of many urban centres in Africa, Asia and South America. As a result many millions of the urban poor live in neighbourhoods which are hazardous to health and well-being