Transcranial high-frequency random noise stimulation does not modulate Nogo N2 and Go/Nogo reaction times in somatosensory and auditory modalities

application/pdfTranscranial random noise stimulation (tRNS) of the primary sensory or motor cortex can improve sensorimotor functions by enhancing circuit excitability and processing fidelity. However, tRNS is reported to have little effect on higher brain functions, such as response inhibition when applied to associated supramodal regions. These discrepancies suggest differential effects of tRNS on the excitability of the primary and supramodal cortex, although this has not been directly demonstrated. This study examined the effects of tRNS on supramodal brain regions on somatosensory and auditory Go/Nogo task performance, a measure of inhibitory executive function, while simultaneously recording event-related potentials (ERPs). Sixteen participants received sham or tRNS stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in a single-blind crossover design study. Neither sham nor tRNS altered somatosensory and auditory Nogo N2 amplitudes, Go/Nogo reaction times, or commission error rates. The results suggest that current tRNS protocols are less effective at modulating neural activity in higher-order cortical regions than in the primary sensory and motor cortex. Further studies are required to identify tRNS protocols that effectively modulate the supramodal cortex for cognitive enhancement

Gross pathology, histopathology and immunohistochemistry of chickens experimentally inoculated with Km_5666.

<p>(A) Grayish-white ill-defined tissue was located in the septum at 35 days old. (B) Locally extensive growth of hypertrophied cardiomyocytes. Bar  = 75 µm. (C) Mitosis (arrowhead) observed in hypertrophied cardiomyocytes. Bar  = 30 µm. (D) Numerous nuclei in atypical myocardium were positive for PCNA. Bar  = 20 µm. (E–F) Hypertrophied cardiomyocytes positive for p-Akt (E) and p-tuberin (F). Bars  = 20 µm.</p

Sequence of the oligonucleotide primers and targets.

<p>Sequence of the oligonucleotide primers and targets.</p

Phylogenic tree based on <i>pol</i> gene of the isolates.

<p>Phylogenic tree constructed by the neighbor-joining method showing the relationships among Km_5892, FGV prototype and standard ALSVs based on the <i>pol</i> gene. The nucleotide sequences were aligned with the Clustal W 1.8.3 program. Bootstrap values of 1000 trials using the neighbor-joining method. Scale bar corresponds to a distance of 0.03 as the frequency of amino acid substitutions in the pairwise comparison of two sequences according to the Kimura two-parameter method.</p

Histopathology and immunohistochemistry of hearts in Japanese native fowls.

<p>(A) Mononuclear cells infiltrate into myocardial fibers. Chicken No. 5. Bar  = 40 µm. (B) Disarrangement of myocardial fibers with interstitial fibrosis. Chicken No. 9. Bar  = 90 µm. (C) Interstitial myocardial fibrosis confirmed by Masson's trichrome stain. Chicken No. 14. Bar  = 25 µm. (D) Hypertrophied cardiomyocytes with multiple atypical nuclei. Mitosis (arrowhead) is occasionally noted in these cardiomyocytes. Chicken No. 14. Bar  = 20 µm. (E) Matrix inclusion bodies (arrowhead) in the cytoplasm of Purkinje fibers. Chicken No. 14. Bar  = 20 µm. (F) Purkinje fibers and matrix inclusion bodies positive for ALV common antigen. Chicken No. 14. Bar  = 20 µm. (G) A large atypical nucleus in a hypertrophied cardiomyocyte is positive for PCNA. Chicken No. 14. Bar  = 20 µm.</p

Clinical signs, gross findings, cardiac histopathology and results of ALV isolation in chickens.

a<p>M: male, F: female</p>b<p>The degree of hypertrophied cardiomyocytes with atypical nuclei was defined as follows: +, individual cells; ++, multiple and/or small clusters; +++, multiple and extensive growth.</p>c<p>The degree of non-suppurative myocarditis was defined as follows: +, focal or multifocal (under 25 µm in diameter); ++, multifocal (from 25 µm to 200 µm); +++, multifocal (over 200 µm).</p>d<p>The degree of fibrosis was defined as follows: +, interstitial; ++, multifocal interstitial (under 400 µm in diameter); +++, multifocal interstitial (over 400 µm in diameter).</p>e<p>Total number in 10 high-power fields.</p>f<p>+: positive,−: negative,ND: no data.</p

The degree of cardiac lesions in chickens experimentally infected with Km_5666 and Km_5892.

a<p>The degree of hypertrophied cardiomyocytes with atypical nuclei was defined as follows: +, individual cells; ++, multiple and/or small clusters; +++, multiple and extensive growth.</p>b<p>The degree of non-suppurative myocarditis was defined as follows: +, focal or multifocal (under 25 µm in diameter); ++, multifocal (from 25 µm to 200 µm); +++, multifocal (over 200 µm).</p>c<p>The degree of fibrosis was defined as follows: +, interstitial; ++, multifocal interstitial (under 400 µm in diameter); +++, multifocal interstitial (over 400 µm in diameter).</p>d<p>Total number in 10 high-power field.</p