Economic Efficiency, Distributive Justice and Liability Rules

The main purpose of this paper is to show that the conflict between the considerations involving economic efficiency and those of distributive justice, in the context of assigning liability, is not as sharp as is generally believed to be the case. The condition of negligence liability which characterizes efficiency in the context of liability rules has an all-or-none character. Negligence liability requires that if one party is negligent and the other is not then the liability for the entire accident loss must fall on the negligent party. Thus within the framework of standard liability rules efficiency requirements preclude any non-efficiency considerations in cases where one party is negligent and the other is not. In this paper it is shown that a part of accident loss plays no part in providing appropriate incentives to the parties for taking due care and can therefore be apportioned on non-efficiency considerations. For a systematic analysis of efficiency requirements, a notion more general than that of a liability rule, namely, that of a decomposed liability rule is introduced. A complete characterization of efficient decomposed liability rules is provided in the paper. One important implication of the characterization theorems of this paper is that by decomposing accident loss in two parts, the scope for distributive considerations can be significantly broadened without sacrificing economic efficiency.Tort Law, Liability Rules, Decomposed liability Rules, Efficient Rules, Nash Equilibria, Negligence Liability, Distributive Justice

Improve Performance of Adaptive Multi-Modulus Frequency Divider by Pulse Triggered Flip Flop

A divider of frequency with minimal power & greater speed with multi modulus is elaborated along design of a PLL. In this document by making use of a ff initiated by a pulse is plowed by which a definite divider with 2 levels can improvise the frequency of function & deduce decadence of power. A constituent which is adaptive s formulated to be retained in a divider with great mode of saving in power. The frequency of a defined divider with 2 levels in accordance to CMOS of 130 nm process may attain 4 GHz. The basic decadence f power is division by 49 mode at 63 uW with frequency of 1 GHz or 156uW at 4 GHz. In a contrast of the counter of Johnson FD, frequency of a divider with 2 levels is improvised & so the proportion of optimization of power

Effects of Wood Preservatives on Physical Properties of Wood II. Effects of Different Salt Loadings of Copper-Chrome-Arsenic Composition

Effect of different salt loadings of copper-chrome-arsenic (CCA) preservative on shrinkage, swelling, and equilibrium moisture content at various relative humidities has been reported for Pinus roxburghii and Mangifera indica. At very low salt retentions, treated wood shows excessive shrinkage and swelling, which reaches a maximum and then falls off with increasing salt loadings. The two woods differ as to the position of these maxima. At higher retention levels, shrinkage and swelling are reduced, but the wood becomes more hygroscopic. The increased hygroscopicity is probably due to CCA salt and the additional water is held by the salt molecules deposited in the cell lumens. At low salt retentions, equilibrium moisture content is lowered at all relative humidities. The general sigmoid character of the adsorption curves is maintained at all levels of retentions

USE OF LACTIC ACID AND SPAN 80 IN THE FORMULATION OF LIPID BASED IMIQUIMOD VESICLES FOR GENITAL WARTS

Objective: The objective of present study was formulation development of imiquimod using lactic acid and span 80 for topical delivery to cure genital warts.Methods: Lipid based vesicles (LBV) of 2% imiquimod were prepared with phospholipoin 90G, ethanol, lactic acid and span 80 using central composite design. The prepared vesicles were optimized statistically and characterized for particle size, zeta potential, percentage entrapment efficiency (% EE) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The optimized LBV were incorporated into gel formulation which was evaluated and compared with control gel and marketed formulation.Results: The optimized vesicles had particle size 394.8±9.6 nm, zeta potential-16.5±2.5 mV, % EE 88.27±0.45 and TEM study confirmed the formation of vesicular structure with spherical shape. The gel formulation of imiquimod vesicles showed positive results like spreadability 14.3±0.34 gcm/s, viscosity 13500±1.67 cp, consistency 6.1±0.14 mm and extrudability 16.47±0.11 g/cm2. In vitro permeation amount of drug was remarkably lower (10.13 %) than control (87.17 %) and marketed formulation (27.46 %). Results of retained drug for both in vitro as well as in vivo permeation study and local accumulation efficiency (4.021±0.2292) were considerably higher for LBV gel than control (0.1008±0.002513) and marketed formulation (0.8314±0.0300). To understand the mechanism of interaction between skin and vesicles, fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy studies were also done. Results of skin irritancy test and histological examination revealed biocompatible nature of formulation.Conclusion: Results of in vitro and in vivo studies indicated that this vesicle gel formulation provided efficient and site specific dermal delivery of imiquimod for cure of genital warts

PASSIVE AND IONTOPHORETIC PERMEATION OF CAPTOPRIL GEL: AN IN VITRO AND IN VIVO STUDY

The  Objective  of  this  work  was  to  formulate  and evaluate  captopril  gel  to  assess  its  suitability  for  transdermal delivery  by  passive  and  iontophoresis.  A  polymer  gel  was prepared  using  hydroxypropyl  methyl  cellulose  and  in  vitro skin permeability was assessed in full thickness skin of rabbits and  pigs.  For  in  vivo  studies  New  Zealand  rabbits  were  used. In vitro  passive permeation was carried out in Franz diffusion cell but for iontophoresis, diffusion cell was modified according to  Glikfield  design.  Iontophoresis  was  performed  at  a  current density  of  0.5  mA/cm2via  silver  /silver  chloride  electrodes with passive controls but for in vivo  study current density wasreduced  to  0.1  mA/cm2.  Blood  samples  were  analyzed  for drug content by HPLC. Results of the  in vitro  study indicated that iontophoresis considerably increased  the permeation rate of  captopril  compared  to  passive  controls  in  both  the  skin types  (P<0.01).  The  plasma  concentration  of  captopril  was significantly  higher  (P<0.001)  than  that  obtained  in  the passive  controls.  Results  showed  that  the  target  permeation rates  for  captopril  could  be  achieved  with  the  aid  of iontophoresis by increasing the area in an appreciable range.Key words:   Captopril,  iontophoresis,  transdermal,  Rabbit,  Pigskin, in vitro, in vivo

The Strong Consistency of Neutral and Monotonic Binary Social Decision Rules

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the strong consistency of neutral and monotonic binary social decision rules. Individuals are assumed to satisfy von Neumann-Morgenstern axioms of individual rationality. The main result of the paper shows that there does not exist any neutral and monotonic non-null non-dictatorial binary social decision rule which is strongly consistent. The relationship between restricted preferences and the existence of strong equilibria is also investigated. It is shown that for every non-dictatorial social decision function satisfying the conditions of independence of irrelevant alternatives, neutrality, monotonicity and weak Pareto-criterion there exists a profile of individual orderings satisfying value-restriction corresponding to which there is no strong equilibrium

Antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of various extracts from Mimosa hamata Willd., Mimosaceae

Jinjani (Mimosa hamata Willd., Mimosaceae) is widely distributed in India and Pakistan, which contains several interesting bioactive constituents and possesses health promoting properties. In this study, the antioxidant activity with the total phenolic content of different successive extracts (pet. ether, chloroform, n-butanol and water) from leaves, stem, root and seeds of M. hamata were assessed in an effort to compare and validate the antioxidant potential of the particular part of the plant. The antioxidant activity was determined by 2, 2- Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay and total phenolic content was estimated by using Folin-Ciocalteu’s reagent. All tested extracts possessed appreciable antioxidant potential but n-butanol extract of roots was significantly higher in total phenolic content (73.16±0.19 mg GAE/g extract) and in antioxidant assay (IC50 = 5µg/ml). It is also noteworthy that in n-butanol extract of roots higher yield (85.60%) was also observed. This study validates the antioxidant potential of the roots in M. hamata and the positive relationship between total phenolic content and antioxidant activity

Cystic tuberculosis of the scapula in a young boy: a case report and review of the literature

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Introduction</p> <p>Tuberculosis of the flat bones is rare and only a small percentage involves the scapular bone.</p> <p>Case presentation</p> <p>We report a rare case of tuberculosis of the scapula in a 14-year-old. Diagnostic clues include lytic areas with low density seen in the body of the scapula involving a glenoid margin associated with typical clinical features. Treatment should include a regimen of four antitubercular drugs along with surgical debridement if required.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Although rare, tuberculosis should be suspected in patients presenting with a chronic sinus in the scapular region, particularly in the developing world.</p