Schematic summary of the environmental sampling and detection of <i>M</i>. <i>ulcerans</i> by PCR.

<p>Schematic summary of the environmental sampling and detection of <i>M</i>. <i>ulcerans</i> by PCR.</p

Presence of <i>M</i>. <i>ulcerans</i> in aquatics vertebrates and macro-invertebrates collected in different areas of Oueme.

<p>The figures correspond to the abundance and the figures in brackets correspond to the number of positive qPCR pools (number of positive pools/total pools). qPCR targeting the KR and IS<i>2404</i> sequences was used to detect <i>M</i>. <i>ulcerans</i>. Only sample pools testing positive for both sequences were considered positive.</p><p>Presence of <i>M</i>. <i>ulcerans</i> in aquatics vertebrates and macro-invertebrates collected in different areas of Oueme.</p

Location of the sites used for environmental sampling in the area of Buruli ulcer endemicity in the Oueme Valley in Benin.

<p>A. Area of Buruli ulcer endemicity in the Oueme Valley in South-East Benin (red rectangle). B. Map indicating the sites at which flying insects and larvae were collected (red points) and aquatic sampling was carried out (green points). C. Map showing the locations along the Oueme River of Buruli ulcer patients, from 2010 to 2013 (cumulative cases in black points).</p

Landscape-associated risk of BU in Akonolinga district, 2002–2012.

<p>A: Classification of Akonolinga area villages according to landscape group and associated BU incidence ratio with 95% confidence interval. B: Predicted cumulative incidence for each village of the district according to the landscape model (cases/1,000py). C: Observed cumulative incidence rate for each village of the district (cases/1,000py).</p

Identification of the Nyong as a major risk factor for BU incidence in Akonolinga 2002–2012 (spatial analysis on time-aggregated incidence rate of BU in Akonolinga).

<p>A: Incidence rate per village (cases/1,000py). B: Decreasing risk of BU with increasing distance to the Nyong River. Homogenous risk areas of Akonolinga district were identified using the SPODT algorithm. Associated odds-ratio and 95% CI are provided.</p

Univariate analysis.

<p>Incidence rate ratios estimated for the landscape groups and the distance to the Nyong River in 154 villages of Akonolinga district, Cameroon, 2002–2012.</p>1<p>IRR: Incidence Rate ratio.</p>2<p>[95%CI]: 95% confidence interval.</p><p>Univariate analysis.</p

Selected environment characteristics of landscape groups defined in Akonolinga district.

<p>*median value for each landscape group; + present, <1%.</p><p>Selected environment characteristics of landscape groups defined in Akonolinga district.</p

Incidence rate ratios estimated for the landscape groups combined with Nyong River distance in 154 villages of Akonolinga health district, Cameroon, 2002–2012.

<p>Deviance explained: 41%; Akaike Information Criterion: 578.4.</p>1<p>IRR: Incidence Rate ratio.</p>2<p>[95%CI]: 95% confidence interval.</p><p>Incidence rate ratios estimated for the landscape groups combined with Nyong River distance in 154 villages of Akonolinga health district, Cameroon, 2002–2012.</p

Maps of spatio-temporal variations of BU incidence in Akonolinga district.

<p>A–D: Incidence rate maps for the periods, phases 1 to 4, identified in the time-series (cases/1,000py).</p

Univariate analysis of variables associated with BU likelihood, Akonolinga, Cameroon.

<p>Univariate analysis of variables associated with BU likelihood, Akonolinga, Cameroon.</p