HIV-1 cellular and tissue replication patterns in infected humanized mice.

Humanized mice have emerged as a testing platform for HIV-1 pathobiology by reflecting natural human disease processes. Their use to study HIV-1 biology, virology, immunology, pathogenesis and therapeutic development has served as a robust alternative to more-well developed animal models for HIV/AIDS. A critical component in reflecting such human pathobiology rests in defining the tissue and cellular sites for HIV-1 infection. To this end, we examined the tissue sites for viral infection in bone marrow, blood, spleens, liver, gut, brain, kidney and lungs of human CD34+ hematopoietic stem cell engrafted virus-infected NOD.Cg-Prkdc(scid) Il2rg(tm1Wjl)/SzJ mice. Cells were analyzed by flow cytometry and sorted from species mixtures defined as CD34+ lineage negative progenitor cells, CD14+CD16+ monocyte-macrophages and central, stem cell and effector memory T cells. The cell distribution and viral life cycle were found dependent on the tissue compartment and time of infection. Cell subsets contained HIV-1 total and integrated DNA as well as multi-spliced and unspliced RNA in divergent proportions. The data support the idea that humanized mice can provide a means to examine the multifaceted sites of HIV-1 replication including, but not limited to progenitor cells and monocyte-macrophages previously possible only in macaques and human

HIV-1 cellular and tissue replication patterns in infected humanized mice.

Humanized mice have emerged as a testing platform for HIV-1 pathobiology by reflecting natural human disease processes. Their use to study HIV-1 biology, virology, immunology, pathogenesis and therapeutic development has served as a robust alternative to more-well developed animal models for HIV/AIDS. A critical component in reflecting such human pathobiology rests in defining the tissue and cellular sites for HIV-1 infection. To this end, we examined the tissue sites for viral infection in bone marrow, blood, spleens, liver, gut, brain, kidney and lungs of human CD34+ hematopoietic stem cell engrafted virus-infected NOD.Cg-Prkdc(scid) Il2rg(tm1Wjl)/SzJ mice. Cells were analyzed by flow cytometry and sorted from species mixtures defined as CD34+ lineage negative progenitor cells, CD14+CD16+ monocyte-macrophages and central, stem cell and effector memory T cells. The cell distribution and viral life cycle were found dependent on the tissue compartment and time of infection. Cell subsets contained HIV-1 total and integrated DNA as well as multi-spliced and unspliced RNA in divergent proportions. The data support the idea that humanized mice can provide a means to examine the multifaceted sites of HIV-1 replication including, but not limited to progenitor cells and monocyte-macrophages previously possible only in macaques and human

Spinal Cord Disease in HIV Infection

HIV infection is associated with numerous spinal cord diseases, such as vacuolar myelopathy, primary HIV-associated acute transverse myelitis, and primary CNS lymphoma, amongst others. These diseases had a much higher prevalence in the pre-cART era, however, some individuals are still affected despite cART treatment. Moreover, a previous study has shown that HIV-1 gp120 induces synaptic degeneration in the spinal pain neural circuit, which is likely a critical step in neuropathogenesis of the spinal cord in HIV. Further study is needed to better understand how HIV patients are affected by spinal cord disease, and to develop therapeutic strategies. To study HIV in its relation to spinal cord disease, we used a recently developed humanized mouse model that has human microglial cell reconstitution. This model allows for the HIV infection in central nervous system and the observation of resulting pathology.https://digitalcommons.unmc.edu/surp2021/1057/thumbnail.jp

A mature macrophage is a principal HIV-1 cellular reservoir in humanized mice after treatment with long acting antiretroviral therapy.

BACKGROUND: Despite improved clinical outcomes seen following antiretroviral therapy (ART), resting CD4+ T cells continue to harbor latent human immunodeficiency virus type one (HIV-1). However, such cells are not likely the solitary viral reservoir and as such defining where and how others harbor virus is imperative for eradication measures. To such ends, we used HIV-1ADA-infected NOD.Cg-Prkdc (scid) Il2rg (tm1Wjl) /SzJ mice reconstituted with a human immune system to explore two long-acting ART regimens investigating their abilities to affect viral cell infection and latency. At 6 weeks of infection animals were divided into four groups. One received long-acting (LA) cabotegravir (CAB) and rilpivirine (RVP) (2ART), a second received LA CAB, lamivudine, abacavir and RVP (4ART), a third were left untreated and a fourth served as an uninfected control. After 4 weeks of LA ART treatment, blood, spleen and bone marrow (BM) cells were collected then phenotypically characterized. CD4+ T cell subsets, macrophages and hematopoietic progenitor cells were analyzed for HIV-1 nucleic acids by droplet digital PCR. RESULTS: Plasma viral loads were reduced by two log10 or to undetectable levels in the 2 and 4ART regimens, respectively. Numbers and distributions of CD4+ memory and regulatory T cells, macrophages and hematopoietic progenitor cells were significantly altered by HIV-1 infection and by both ART regimens. ART reduced viral DNA and RNA in all cell and tissue compartments. While memory cells were the dominant T cell reservoir, integrated HIV-1 DNA was also detected in the BM and spleen macrophages in both regimen-treated mice. CONCLUSION: Despite vigorous ART regimens, HIV-1 DNA and RNA were easily detected in mature macrophages supporting their potential role as an infectious viral reservoir

An Elvitegravir Nanoformulation Crosses the Blood–Brain Barrier and Suppresses HIV-1 Replication in Microglia

Even with an efficient combination of antiretroviral therapy (ART), which significantly decreases viral load in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-positive individuals, the occurrence of HIV-1-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) still exists. Microglia have been shown to have a significant role in HIV-1 replication in the brain and in subsequent HAND pathogenesis. However, due to the limited ability of ART drugs to cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB) after systemic administration, in addition to efflux transporter expression on microglia, the efficacy of ART drugs for viral suppression in microglia is suboptimal. Previously, we developed novel poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-based elvitegravir nanoparticles (PLGA-EVG NPs), which showed improved BBB penetration in vitro and improved viral suppression in HIV-1-infected primary macrophages, after crossing an in vitro BBB model. Our objective in the current study was to evaluate the efficacy of our PLGA-EVG NPs in an important central nervous system (CNS) HIV-1 reservoir, i.e., microglia. In this study, we evaluated the cyto-compatibility of the PLGA-EVG NPs in microglia, using an XTT (2,3-bis-(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxanilide) assay and cellular morphology observation. We also studied the endocytosis pathway and the subcellular localization of PLGA NPs in microglia, using various endocytosis inhibitors and subcellular localization markers. We determined the ability of PLGA-EVG NPs to suppress HIV-1 replication in microglia, after crossing an in vitro BBB model. We also studied the drug levels in mouse plasma and brain tissue, using immunodeficient NOD scid gamma (NSG) mice, and performed a pilot study, to evaluate the efficacy of PLGA-EVG NPs on viral suppression in the CNS, using an HIV-1 encephalitic (HIVE) mouse model. From our results, the PLGA-EVG NPs showed ~100% biocompatibility with microglia, as compared to control cells. The internalization of PLGA NPs in microglia occurred through caveolae-/clathrin-mediated endocytosis. PLGA NPs can also escape from endo-lysosomal compartments and deliver the therapeutics to cells efficiently. More importantly, the PLGA-EVG NPs were able to show ~25% more viral suppression in HIV-1-infected human-monocyte-derived microglia-like cells after crossing the in vitro BBB compared to the EVG native drug, without altering BBB integrity. PLGA-EVG NPs also showed a ~two-fold higher level in mouse brain and a trend of decreasing CNS HIV-1 viral load in HIV-1-infected mice. Overall, these results help us to create a safe and efficient drug delivery method to target HIV-1 reservoirs in the CNS, for potential clinical use

Pharmacodynamics of folic acid receptor targeted antiretroviral nanotherapy in HIV-1-infected humanized mice.

Long-acting nanoformulated antiretroviral therapy (nanoART) can sustain plasma drug levels and improve its biodistribution. Cell targeted-nanoART can achieve this and bring drug efficiently to viral reservoirs. However, whether such improvements affect antiretroviral responses remains unknown. To these ends, we tested folic acid (FA)-linked poloxamer407-coated ritonavir-boosted atazanavir (FA-nanoATV/r) nanoparticles for their ability to affect chronic HIV-1 infection in humanized mice. Following three, 100mg/kg FA-nanoATV/r intramuscular injections administered every other week to infected animals, viral RNA was at or below the detection limit, cell-associated HIV-1p24 reduced and CD4+ T cell counts protected. The dosing regimen improved treatment outcomes more than two fold from untargeted nanoATV/r. We posit that these nanoformulations have potential for translation to human use

Preliminary Studies on Immune Response and Viral Pathogenesis of Zika Virus in Rhesus Macaques

Zika Virus (ZIKV) is primarily transmitted through mosquito bites. It can also be transmitted during sexual intercourse and in utero from mother to fetus. To gain preliminary insight into ZIKV pathology and immune responses on route of transmission, rhesus macaques (RMs) were inoculated with ZIKV (PRVABC59) via intravaginal (IVAG) (n = 3) or subcutaneous (sub Q) (n = 2) routes. Systemic ZIKV infection was observed in all RMs, regardless of the route of inoculation. After 9 days postinfection (dpi), ZIKV was not detected in the plasma of IVAG- and sub-Q-inoculated RMs. Importantly, RMs harbored ZIKV up to 60 dpi in various anatomical locations. Of note, ZIKV was also present in several regions of the brain, including the caudate nucleus, parietal lobe, cortex, and amygdala. These observations appear to indicate that ZIKV infection may be systemic and persistent regardless of route of inoculation. In addition, we observed changes in key immune cell populations in response to ZIKV infection. Importantly, IVAG ZIKV infection of RMs is associated with increased depletion of CD11C hi myeloid cells, reduced PD-1 expression in NK cells, and elevated frequencies of Ki67⁺ CD8⁺ central memory cells as compared to sub Q ZIKV-infected RMs. These results need to interpreted with caution due to the small number of animals utilized in this study. Future studies involving large groups of animals that have been inoculated through both routes of transmission are needed to confirm our findings

Loss of neuronal integrity during progressive HIV-1 infection of humanized mice.

Neuronal damage induced by ongoing human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection was investigated in humanized NOD/scid-IL-2Rγ(c)(null) mice transplanted at birth with human CD34-positive hematopoietic stem cells. Mice infected at 5 months of age and followed for up to 15 weeks maintained significant plasma viral loads and showed reduced numbers of CD4(+) T-cells. Prospective serial proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy tests showed selective reductions in cortical N-acetyl aspartate in infected animals. Diffusion tensor imaging revealed structural changes in cortical gray matter. Postmortem immunofluorescence brain tissue examinations for neuronal and glial markers, captured by multispectral imaging microscopy and quantified by morphometric and fluorescence emission, showed regional reduction of neuronal soma and synaptic architectures. This was evidenced by loss of microtubule-associated protein 2, synaptophysin, and neurofilament antigens. This study is the first, to our knowledge, demonstrating lost neuronal integrity after HIV-1 infection in humanized mice. As such, the model permits studies of the relationships between ongoing viral replication and virus-associated neurodegeneration

Afatinib and Temozolomide Combination Inhibits Tumorigenesis by Targeting EGFRvIII-cMet Signaling in Glioblastoma Cells

BACKGROUND: Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive brain tumor with universal recurrence and poor prognosis. The recurrence is largely driven by chemoradiation resistant cancer stem cells (CSCs). Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and its mutant EGFRvIII are amplified in ~ 60% and ~ 30% of GBM patients, respectively; however, therapies targeting EGFR have failed to improve disease outcome. EGFRvIII-mediated cross-activation of tyrosine kinase receptor, cMET, regulates GBM CSC maintenance and promote tumor recurrence. Here, we evaluated the efficacy of pan-EGFR inhibitor afatinib and Temozolomide (TMZ) combination on GBM in vitro and in vivo. METHODS: We analyzed the effect of afatinib and temozolomide (TMZ) combination on GBM cells U87MG and U251 engineered to express wild type (WT) EGFR, EGFRvIII or EGFRvIII dead kinase, CSCs isolated from U87 and U87EGFRvIII in vitro. The therapeutic utility of the drug combination was investigated on tumor growth and progression using intracranially injected U87EGFRvIII GBM xenografts. RESULTS: Afatinib and TMZ combination synergistically inhibited the proliferation, clonogenic survival, motility, invasion and induced senescence of GBM cells compared to monotherapy. Mechanistically, afatinib decreased U87EGFRvIII GBM cell proliferation and motility/invasion by inhibiting EGFRvIII/AKT, EGFRvIII/JAK2/STAT3, and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) signaling pathways respectively. Interestingly, afatinib specifically inhibited EGFRvIII-cMET crosstalk in CSCs, resulting in decreased expression of Nanog and Oct3/4, and in combination with TMZ significantly decreased their self-renewal property in vitro. More interestingly, afatinib and TMZ combination significantly decreased the xenograft growth and progression compared to single drug alone. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrated significant inhibition of GBM tumorigenicity, CSC maintenance in vitro, and delayed tumor growth and progression in vivo by combination of afatinib and TMZ. Our results warrant evaluation of this drug combination in EGFR and EGFRvIII amplified GBM patients

A Link Between Methylglyoxal and Heart Failure During HIV-1 Infection

Early-onset heart failure (HF) continues to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality in people living with human immunodeficiency virus type one (HIV-1) infection (PLWH), yet the molecular causes for this remain poorly understood. Herein NOD.Cg- PrkdcscidIl2rgtm1Wjl/SzJ humanized mice (Hu-mice), plasma from PLWH, and autopsied cardiac tissues from deceased HIV seropositive individuals were used to assess if there is a link between the glycolysis byproduct methylglyoxal (MG) and HF in the setting of HIV-1 infection. At five weeks post HIV infection, Hu-mice developed grade III-IV diastolic dysfunction (DD) with an associated two-fold increase in plasma MG. At sixteen-seventeen weeks post infection, cardiac ejection fraction and fractional shortening also declined by 26 and 35%, and plasma MG increased to four-fold higher than uninfected controls. Histopathological and biochemical analyses of cardiac tissues from Hu-mice 17 weeks post-infection affirmed MG increase with a concomitant decrease in expression of the MG-degrading enzyme glyoxalase-1 (Glo1). The endothelial cell marker CD31 was found to be lower, and coronary microvascular leakage and myocardial fibrosis were prominent. Increasing expression of Glo1 in Hu-mice five weeks post-infection using a single dose of an engineered AAV2/9 (1.7 × 1012 virion particles/kg), attenuated the increases in plasma and cardiac MG levels. Increasing Glo1 also blunted microvascular leakage, fibrosis, and HF seen at sixteen weeks post-infection, without changes in plasma viral loads. In plasma fromvirally suppressed PLWH,MG was also 3.7-fold higher. In autopsied cardiac tissues from seropositive, HIV individuals with low viral log, MG was 4.2-fold higher and Glo1 was 50% lower compared to uninfected controls. These data show for the first time a causal link between accumulation of MG and HF in the setting of HIV infection