Development and validation of the Arizona Cognitive Test Battery for Down syndrome

Neurocognitive assessment in individuals with intellectual disabilities requires a well-validated test battery. To meet this need, the Arizona Cognitive Test Battery (ACTB) has been developed specifically to assess the cognitive phenotype in Down syndrome (DS). The ACTB includes neuropsychological assessments chosen to 1) assess a range of skills, 2) be non-verbal so as to not confound the neuropsychological assessment with language demands, 3) have distributional properties appropriate for research studies to identify genetic modifiers of variation, 4) show sensitivity to within and between sample differences, 5) have specific correlates with brain function, and 6) be applicable to a wide age range and across contexts. The ACTB includes tests of general cognitive ability and prefrontal, hippocampal and cerebellar function. These tasks were drawn from the Cambridge Neuropsychological Testing Automated Battery (CANTAB) and other established paradigms. Alongside the cognitive testing battery we administered benchmark and parent-report assessments of cognition and behavior. Individuals with DS (n = 74, ages 7–38 years) and mental age (MA) matched controls (n = 50, ages 3–8 years) were tested across 3 sites. A subsample of these groups were used for between-group comparisons, including 55 individuals with DS and 36 mental age matched controls. The ACTB allows for low floor performance levels and participant loss. Floor effects were greater in younger children. Individuals with DS were impaired on a number ACTB tests in comparison to a MA-matched sample, with some areas of spared ability, particularly on tests requiring extensive motor coordination. Battery measures correlated with parent report of behavior and development. The ACTB provided consistent results across contexts, including home vs. lab visits, cross-site, and among individuals with a wide range of socio-economic backgrounds and differences in ethnicity. The ACTB will be useful in a range of outcome studies, including clinical trials and the identification of important genetic components of cognitive disability

Characterization of Within-Host Plasmodium falciparum Diversity Using Next-Generation Sequence Data

Our understanding of the composition of multi-clonal malarial infections and the epidemiological factors which shape their diversity remain poorly understood. Traditionally within-host diversity has been defined in terms of the multiplicity of infection (MOI) derived by PCR-based genotyping. Massively parallel, single molecule sequencing technologies now enable individual read counts to be derived on genome-wide datasets facilitating the development of new statistical approaches to describe within-host diversity. In this class of measures the FWS metric characterizes within-host diversity and its relationship to population level diversity. Utilizing P. falciparum field isolates from patients in West Africa we here explore the relationship between the traditional MOI and FWS approaches. FWS statistics were derived from read count data at 86,158 SNPs in 64 samples sequenced on the Illumina GA platform. MOI estimates were derived by PCR at the msp-1 and -2 loci. Significant correlations were observed between the two measures, particularly with the msp-1 locus (P = 5.92×10−5). The FWS metric should be more robust than the PCR-based approach owing to reduced sensitivity to potential locus-specific artifacts. Furthermore the FWS metric captures information on a range of parameters which influence out-crossing risk including the number of clones (MOI), their relative proportions and genetic divergence. This approach should provide novel insights into the factors which correlate with, and shape within-host diversity

A 2-Mb YAC contig encompassing three loci (DXF34, DXS14, and DXS390) that lie between Xp11.2 translocation breakpoints associated with incontinentia pigmenti type 1.

We demonstrate that all the repeat elements representing the conserved loci DXF34 and DXS390 lie between the X;9 and the X;17 translocation breakpoints associated with incontinentia pigmenti type 1 (IP1). Sequence-tagged sites (STSs) at DXF34S1, DXS14, and DXS390 have been used to isolate YAC clones containing these loci, and a contig of approximately 2 Mb has been constructed. Patterns of hybridization observed in the YAC clones indicate that DXS390 comprises two distinct regions (A and B). The STS at DXS390 detects the A region and includes a polymorphic CA repeat (PIC = 0.25). This expansion of the cloned region around DXF34 and DXS390 will enable the isolation of additional conserved sequences that will help in understanding both the lesions underlying the pathogenesis of IP1 and the size and extent of the man-mouse homologous block defined by DXF34

Intracellular antibody signalling is regulated by phosphorylation of the Fc receptor TRIM21.

Cell surface Fc receptors activate inflammation and are tightly controlled to prevent autoimmunity. Antibodies also simulate potent immune signalling from inside the cell via the cytosolic antibody receptor TRIM21, but how this is regulated is unknown. Here we show that TRIM21 signalling is constitutively repressed by its B-Box domain and activated by phosphorylation. The B-Box occupies an E2 binding site on the catalytic RING domain by mimicking E2-E3 interactions, inhibiting TRIM21 ubiquitination and preventing immune activation. TRIM21 is derepressed by IKKβ and TBK1 phosphorylation of an LxxIS motif in the RING domain, at the interface with the B-Box. Incorporation of phosphoserine or a phosphomimetic within this motif relieves B-Box inhibition, promoting E2 binding, RING catalysis, NF-κB activation and cytokine transcription upon infection with DNA or RNA viruses. These data explain how intracellular antibody signalling is regulated and reveal that the B-Box is a critical regulator of RING E3 ligase activity

Molecular mechanism of APC/C activation by mitotic phosphorylation

In eukaryotes, the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) regulates the ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis of specific cell cycle proteins to coordinate chromosome segregation in mitosis and entry into G1 (refs 1,2). The APC/C’s catalytic activity and ability to specify the destruction of particular proteins at different phases of the cell cycle are controlled by its interaction with two structurally related coactivator subunits (Cdc20 and Cdh1). Coactivators recognize substrate degrons3, and enhance the APC/C’s affinity for its cognate E2 (refs 4–6). During mitosis, cyclin-dependent kinase and polo kinase control Cdc20 and Cdh1-mediated activation of the APC/C. Hyper-phosphorylation of APC/C subunits, notably Apc1 and Apc3, is required for Cdc20 to activate the APC/C7–12, whereas phosphorylation of Cdh1 prevents its association with the APC/C9,13,14. Since both coactivators associate with the APC/C through their common C box15 and IR (Ile-Arg) tail motifs16,17, the mechanism underlying this differential regulation is unclear, as is the role of specific APC/C phosphorylation sites. Here, using cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and biochemical analysis, we define the molecular basis of how APC/C phosphorylation allows for its control by Cdc20. An auto-inhibitory (AI) segment of Apc1 acts as a molecular switch that in apo unphosphorylated APC/C interacts with the C-box binding site and obstructs engagement of Cdc20. Phosphorylation of the AI segment displaces it from the C-box binding site. Efficient phosphorylation of the AI segment, and thus relief of auto-inhibition, requires the recruitment of Cdk-cyclin-Cks to a hyper-phosphorylated loop of Apc3. We also find that the small molecule inhibitor, tosyl-L-arginine methyl ester (TAME), preferentially suppresses APC/C(Cdc20) rather than APC/C(Cdh1), and interacts with both the C-box and IR-tail binding sites. Our results reveal the mechanism for the regulation of mitotic APC/C by phosphorylation and provide a rationale for the development of selective inhibitors of this state