On Automating the Doctrine of Double Effect

The doctrine of double effect ($\mathcal{DDE}$) is a long-studied ethical principle that governs when actions that have both positive and negative effects are to be allowed. The goal in this paper is to automate $\mathcal{DDE}$. We briefly present $\mathcal{DDE}$, and use a first-order modal logic, the deontic cognitive event calculus, as our framework to formalize the doctrine. We present formalizations of increasingly stronger versions of the principle, including what is known as the doctrine of triple effect. We then use our framework to simulate successfully scenarios that have been used to test for the presence of the principle in human subjects. Our framework can be used in two different modes: One can use it to build $\mathcal{DDE}$-compliant autonomous systems from scratch, or one can use it to verify that a given AI system is $\mathcal{DDE}$-compliant, by applying a $\mathcal{DDE}$ layer on an existing system or model. For the latter mode, the underlying AI system can be built using any architecture (planners, deep neural networks, bayesian networks, knowledge-representation systems, or a hybrid); as long as the system exposes a few parameters in its model, such verification is possible. The role of the $\mathcal{DDE}$ layer here is akin to a (dynamic or static) software verifier that examines existing software modules. Finally, we end by presenting initial work on how one can apply our $\mathcal{DDE}$ layer to the STRIPS-style planning model, and to a modified POMDP model.This is preliminary work to illustrate the feasibility of the second mode, and we hope that our initial sketches can be useful for other researchers in incorporating DDE in their own frameworks.Comment: 26th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence 2017; Special Track on AI & Autonom

Legislative Notes: The FDA\u27s Over-the Counter Drug Review: Expeditious Enforcement by Rulemaking

This article attempts to show that the OTC drug review has distinct advantages over traditional drug regulation. Part I outlines briefly the traditional case-by-case approach to drug licensing and describes FDA enforcement efforts prior to the OTC drug review. Part II sets forth the new rulemaking approach and considers the use of advisory panels. Part III examines several procedural questions associated with the review and concludes that the use of monographs as regulatory standards will afford the FDA an expeditious enforcement mechanism by resolving complex scientific issues at the administrative rather than the judicial level. Judicial review should be available, however, to ensure the reasonableness of the monographs, especially where a final monograph does not incorporate panel recommendations

Measuring Allostatic Load in a Nationally Representative Sample of Pregnant Women

Allostatic load (AL) is a measure of cumulative "wear and tear" on the body resulting from exposure to chronic stress. Recently, a potential link between AL and poor birth outcomes was proposed, although it is unknown whether AL can be measured in a meaningful way during pregnancy. To determine this, an AL index was created using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 1999-2006. The distribution of AL scores were significantly different in pregnant and non-pregnant women (p<0.01). AL scores were associated with race, age, income, and education level in the sample of non-pregnant women, but similar associations were not seen in pregnant women. Overall, the results of this study suggest that AL does not have the same attributes in pregnant women as it does in non-pregnant women. However, the findings suggest directions for future study of AL as a risk factor for poor birth outcomes

O Desenvolvimento de uma Postura Profissional do Professor Secundário de Matemática na Formação Docente

This article explores the multilayered experiences of a secondary school mathematics education student within her teacher education program. A framework of educational journeys, explored through four key themes, was used to articulate her experiences. The signifi cance of this paper is that it highlights the importance of pre-service teachers, and their instructors in secondary school mathematics teacher education programs, having rich educational journeys that foster an all-embracing professional attitude towards teaching.Este artigo explora as experiências ocorridas em vários níveis da formação de uma aluna da educação matemática de ensino secundário. Uma estrutura de jornadas educacionais, explorada através de quatro temas centrais, foi utilizada para articular suas experiências. A signifi cância deste artigo fi ca clara pelo fato dele destacar a importância de professores em pré-serviço e de seus instrutores nos programas de formação de professores de matemática para o segundo grau terem ricas jornadas educacionais que promovam uma atitude profi ssional abrangente em relação ao ensino