It’s not the size, it’s the relationship: from ‘small states’ to asymmetry

Debate about the definition of “small state” has produced more fragmentation than consensus, even as the literature has demonstrated its subjects’ roles in joining international organizations propagating norms, executing creative diplomacy, influencing allies, avoiding and joining conflicts, and building peace. However, work on small states has struggled to identify commonalities in these states’ international relations, to cumulate knowledge, or to impact broader IR theory. This paper advocates a changed conceptual and definitional framework. Analysis of “small states” should pivot to examine the dynamics of the asymmetrical relationships in which these states are engaged. Instead of seeking an overall metric for size as the relevant variable—falling victim in a different way Dahl’s “lump-of-power fallacy,” we can recognize the multifaceted, variegated nature of power, whether in war or peacetime

Earthquake Hydrogeology

Hydrologic responses to earthquakes such as streamflow increases, water-level changes, and changes in geyser eruption frequency often reflect changes in permeability caused by seismic waves. The dynamic nature of permeability, as revealed by coseismic hydrologic phenomena, holds implications for groundwater systems, geothermal resources, mineral resources, and geologic hazards. Analysis of water-level responses to solid Earth tides and changes in atmospheric pressure provides a passive way to continuously monitor changes in permeability and storage properties in tectonically active regions

Evaluating geothermal and hydrogeologic controls on regional groundwater temperature distribution

A one-dimensional (1-D) analytic solution is developed for heat transport through an aquifer system where the vertical temperature profile in the aquifer is nearly uniform. The general anisotropic form of the viscous heat generation term is developed for use in groundwater flow simulations. The 1-D solution is extended to more complex geometries by solving the equation for piece-wise linear or uniform properties and boundary conditions. A moderately complex example, the Eastern Snake River Plain (ESRP), is analyzed to demonstrate the use of the analytic solution for identifying important physical processes. For example, it is shown that viscous heating is variably important and that heat conduction to the land surface is a primary control on the distribution of aquifer and spring temperatures. Use of published values for all aquifer and thermal properties results in a reasonable match between simulated and measured groundwater temperatures over most of the 300 km length of the ESRP, except for geothermal heat flow into the base of the aquifer within 20 km of the Yellowstone hotspot. Previous basal heat flow measurements (110 mW/m2) made beneath the ESRP aquifer were collected at distances of >50 km from the Yellowstone Plateau, but a higher basal heat flow of 150 mW/m2 is required to match groundwater temperatures near the Plateau. The ESRP example demonstrates how the new tool can be used during preliminary analysis of a groundwater system, allowing efficient identification of the important physical processes that must be represented during more-complex 2-D and 3-D simulations of combined groundwater and heat flow

Evaluating geothermal and hydrogeologic controls on regional groundwater temperature distribution

A one-dimensional (1-D) analytic solution is developed for heat transport through an aquifer system where the vertical temperature profile in the aquifer is nearly uniform. The general anisotropic form of the viscous heat generation term is developed for use in groundwater flow simulations. The 1-D solution is extended to more complex geometries by solving the equation for piece-wise linear or uniform properties and boundary conditions. A moderately complex example, the Eastern Snake River Plain (ESRP), is analyzed to demonstrate the use of the analytic solution for identifying important physical processes. For example, it is shown that viscous heating is variably important and that heat conduction to the land surface is a primary control on the distribution of aquifer and spring temperatures. Use of published values for all aquifer and thermal properties results in a reasonable match between simulated and measured groundwater temperatures over most of the 300 km length of the ESRP, except for geothermal heat flow into the base of the aquifer within 20 km of the Yellowstone hotspot. Previous basal heat flow measurements (110 mW/m2) made beneath the ESRP aquifer were collected at distances of >50 km from the Yellowstone Plateau, but a higher basal heat flow of 150 mW/m2 is required to match groundwater temperatures near the Plateau. The ESRP example demonstrates how the new tool can be used during preliminary analysis of a groundwater system, allowing efficient identification of the important physical processes that must be represented during more-complex 2-D and 3-D simulations of combined groundwater and heat flow

Thermal effect of climate change on groundwater-fed ecosystems

Groundwater temperature changes will lag surface temperature changes from a changing climate. Steady state solutions of the heat-transport equations are used to identify key processes that control the long-term thermal response of springs and other groundwater discharge to climate change, in particular changes in (1) groundwater recharge rate and temperature and (2) land-surface temperature transmitted through the vadose zone. Transient solutions are developed to estimate the time required for new thermal signals to arrive at ecosystems. The solution is applied to the volcanic Medicine Lake highlands, California, USA, and associated springs complexes that host groundwater-dependent ecosystems. In this system, upper basin groundwater temperatures are strongly affected only by recharge conditions. However, as the vadose zone thins away from the highlands, changes in the average annual land-surface temperature also influence groundwater temperatures. Transient response to temperature change depends on both the conductive time scale and the rate at which recharge delivers heat. Most of the thermal response of groundwater at high elevations will occur within 20 years of a shift in recharge temperatures, but the large lower elevation springs will respond more slowly, with about half of the conductive response occurring within the first 20 years and about half of the advective response to higher recharge temperatures occurring in approximately 60 years

Geoinformatic Intelligence Methodologies for Drought Spatiotemporal Variability in Greece

One of the most important hazards in terms of cost, frequency of occurrence and impact on humans is drought. Drought indices are estimations of precipitation shortage and water supply deficit. Satellite drought indices are normally radiometric recordings of vegetation condition and dynamics, exploiting the unique spectral signatures of canopy elements, particularly in the red and near-infrared bands. However, the identification of drought based on the Reconnaissance Drought Index (RDI) enables the assessment of hydro-meteorological drought, since it uses hydro-meteorological parameters. RDI is a fairly comprehensive index as it combines the simplicity of use and the successfully assessment and monitoring of the phenomenon. However, the study and understanding of the spatiotemporal variability of drought is not an easy process. In this study the main goal is to use the PCA + clustering method to transform the RDI temporal data (1982-2001) and cluster the different regions of Greece based on that temporal variations. Firstly, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) applied onto 19 annual RDI indices followed by Clustering that was based on certain eigenchannels resulted from the previous PCA analysis. Both methods are linear transformations capable to decorrelate the spatiotemporal information provided in the estimated RDI. The time series presented approach proved to be advantageous in relation to other statistical methods used to describe variability and provide excellent and fast results for stakeholders and environmental organizations. The results are quite satisfactory in classifying the drought-induced climatic regions of Greece