Risk factors for the occurrence and spread of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 in commercial poultry farms in Kano, Nigeria

Outbreaks of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) subtype H5N1 occurred previously for three consecutive years, 2006, 2007 and 2008 in Kano State, Nigeria, causing heavy economic losses to farmers and the government. It was against this background that risk factors for the occurrence and spread of HPAI H5N1 among commercial poultry farms in the State were evaluated. A total of 64 farms comprising 32 affected (AF) and 32 non-affected (NAF) farms were enrolled for this study. Questionnaires were designed and administered to the selected farms through interviews with farm owners or farm managers during on-site visits. Information on flock profile including farm characteristics and environment, husbandry practices, biosecurity practices, farm trade practices and employee activities were obtained and analyzed. Pearson Chi square and Fisher’s exact tests were used to compare categorical variables. Values of p< 0.05 were considered significant. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated to measure the strength and statistical significance of associations between the variables and occurrence and spread of HPAI H5N1 in commercial poultry farms in the State. The most significant risk factors were the presence of untreated surface water on farms (OR 18.6, 95%CI 2.24 – 154.34, p = 0.001), exchange of egg crates between traders and farmers (OR 12.1, 95%CI 1.43 – 102.61, p = 0.006), allowing egg crates of traders into poultry pens (OR 11.67, 95%CI 2.37 – 57.86, p = 0.001) and allowing rodents/wild birds access to poultry feed (OR 3.65, 95%CI 0.23 – 1.87, p = 0.024). It was recommended that veterinary inspection to enforce and encourage best biosecurity practices for the poultry farms should be introduced and sustained

Studies of some risk factors for re-introduction and spread of highly-pathogenic avian influenza in two states of Nigeria

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) occurred in Nigeria about seven years ago affecting a wide range of avian species and human. HPAI being a major emerging zoonosis and a devastating disease of birds occupies the topmost position in the World Organisation for Animal Health list A poultry diseases . It requires emergency responses to speedily detect and control outbreaks, avoid spread and prevent  future reoccurrence. Risk assessment links disease ecology with farmer's attitudes and practices in the agent-host environment relationship. As an example, a qualitative risk assessment was conducted on poultry farmer-risk practices for the introduction and spread of HPAI in two north eastern States of Nigeria. High risk based poultry management and marketing procedures, inadequate poultry housing were areas of major concern in these states. Future high risk of AI reintroduction and spread still existed, early detection enabling prompt implementation of control strategies where given undue attention. Recent global advances in AI control strategies could only be of value with early outbreak detection. Farmers must change attitudes towards adapting biosecurity measures, improvement in early detection skills would assist preparedness in the efforts to rapidly detect and act against future HPAI outbreak in Nigeria. Key words: Risk factors, avian influenza, spread, Nigeri

Effect of Crotalaria Retusa:Concentrate Ratio Fed to Red Sokoto Goats on Intake and Digestibility

An experiment was carried out to determine the effect of Crotalaria:concentrate ratio on intake, digestibility and nitrogen balance in Red Sokoto goats. Four goats with average initial weight of 15.33kg were used in a 4x4 Latin Square experiment, which lasted for 32days. The animals were allocated to 4 diets containing 20%crotalaria:80% concentrate (T1), 40% crotalaria:60% concentrate (T2), 60%crotalaria:40% concentrate (T3) and 80%crotalaria:20% concentrate (T4) diets. Feed intake was influenced (P<0.05) by dietary treatments, values were 2178.5, 2118.0, 1882.5 and 1476.0 for T1, T2, T3 and T4 respectively. There was no significant (P>0.05) difference in the final weight gain of goats fed T3 (16.95) and T4 (17.15). However, there was a significant difference (P<0.05) in final weight between goats fed T1 (14.05), T2 (15.15) and T3 (16.95). Total nitrogen intake differed significantly (P<0.05) among treatment diets. Apparent-N-digestibility (%) value was significantly different (p<0.05) for goats fed T1 diet (71.97) relative to T4 (59.91). The result of this study shows that incorporation of crotalaria retusa leaves meal in the diet of Red Sokoto goats generally improved performance in Red Sokoto goats. However, the best level of inclusion is 40% Crotalaria:60% concentrate ratio

Morphometry of the Gastro-intestinal Tract in Broiler Finisher Fed Rice Offal Supplemented with Xylanase Enzyme

The study was carried out to evaluate the effects of rice offal diets supplemented with xylanase on broiler birds. One hundred and twenty broiler chickens at four weeks of age were randomly allotted to four dietary treatments composed of graded levels of rice offal at 0% (control), 5%, 10% and 15% supplemented with equal levels of xylanase (10g/100kg of feed). Each treatment was replicated three times with 10 birds per replicate. No significant difference (P > 0.05) was observed on the performance of the birds. On the organ weights the crop had better development (P < 0.05) on rice offal diets (35.96, 37.27, and 48.90) as compared to control (35.20). But there was no significant difference (P > 0.05) and no particular trend on the results of all other organs weight. The morphometric analysis showed a significant difference (P<0.05) only in length of the liver with birds on control diet (11.43) having higher mean values. The proventriculus, small intestine and spleen though not significantly different (P>0.05) on both width and length dimensions, however showed a linear increase as the levels of rice offal in the diets increased. Feed cost per kg was reduced on enzyme supplemented diets as the level of rice offal increased. The feed conversion ratio on dietary treatments compared favourably with the control. There was decreased viscosity, increased intestinal transit/rate, reduction of water content in faeces that resulted in a good litter quality on the birds across the treatments. Rice offal supplemented with xylanase can therefore be included up to 15% in the diets of broiler birds without any adverse effect on the performance and gastro-intestinal tract.Keywords: Exogenous enzymes, Fiber utilization, Growth performance, Poultry diets, Gastro- intestinal morphometr

Retrospective analysis of Newcastle disease diagnosed at the poultry clinic of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

Newcastle disease (ND) is a highly contagious viral disease of domestic and wild birds with devastating impact on poultry health and production. Many vaccines and vaccination schedules are in use in controlling the disease but prevention and control are still a problem. A ten-year retrospective study (2002-2011) of Newcastle disease and other poultry diseases diagnosed at the Poultry Clinic of Ahmadu Bello University Veterinary Teaching Hospital (ABUVTH), Zaria, Kaduna, Nigeria was conducted. Out of 2,649 cases of poultry presented, 43.9% (1,164 cases) were confirmed as ND. The highest number of cases of the disease was in August followed by July and May. The cases of ND were observed to be higher in the rainy season (July to September), but it seems to be 1.43 times more likely to occur during pre-dry season (October to December). Most of the cases of ND were recorded in chickens and turkeys. Birds between the ages of 9 and 20 weeks were 2.01 times more likely to suffer from ND than younger birds. Most of the cases of ND were reported in birds that were vaccinated against ND than non-vaccinated ones. It was recommended that monitoring of Newcastle disease antibody titre should be intensified during rainy season and birds should be vaccinated against the disease as at when due.Keywords: Newcastle disease, Poultry, Seasonal distribution, Vaccine, Zari

Nutritive Value of Dolichos Lablab (Lablab purpureus CV. Rongai) Forage cut at Different Stages of Growth on Performance of Weaned Rabbits.

The study examined the effect of cutting lablab forage at different stages of growth (6, 12, 18 and 24 weeks) on the proximate composition, growth performance, nutrient digestibility and carcass characteristics of weaned rabbits. Lablab forage cut at different stages of growth were analyzed for dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ether extract (EE), ash and nitrogen free extract (FE). Thirty (30) weaned rabbits with an initial weight of 541.67g were randomly allotted to five dietary treatments of six (6) rabbits per treatment in a completely randomized design. Diet I was the control (without lablab forage). Diet 2, 3, 4, and 5 contained lablab forage cut at 6, 12, 18 and 24 weeks, post germination, respectively. The diets were formulated to be isonitrogenous (18% CP). Measurements taken included live weight, feed intake, hematological parameters, carcass and organ characteristics. Weight gain, feed coversion ratio, cost per gain and nutrient digesbility coefficient were calculated. There were significant (P<0.05) differences in all the proximate parameters measured. The dry matter and crude fibre values showed steady increase as the forage plant advanced in age while the crude protein values decreased significantly (P<0.05) as the plant aged. Rabbits fed lablab forage cut at 12 weeks of age post germination performed significantly (P<0.05) better than those on other dietary treatments. Except for nitrogen free extract, apparent nutrient digestibilities were significantly (P<0.05) different across the dietary treatments. The haematological indices measured were within the normal range established for healthy rabbits. There were significant (P<0.05) differences in all the carcass parameter measured except for intestinal length, weight of the stomach and head. It was concluded that lablab purpureus forage should be harvested at 12 weeks of age post germination for optimum performance and nutrient utilization in weaned rabbits.Keywords: Lablab, forage, performance, growth, rabbits

Effect of Season, Birth Weight and Weaning Weight on the onset of Puberty of Primiparous Friesian X Bunaji Heifers

A study was conducted to determine the effect of season, birth weight and weaning weight on the onset of puberty of 31 crossbred (Friesian & Bunaji) calves born from 1999 to 2005. The parameters considered were season of birth, birth weight, weaning weight body weight from 12-27 month of age and age and weight at puberty. Birth weight and weaning weight of the calves were grouped into intervals and its effects were studied on both the age and weight at puberty. Season showed a significant (P<0.05) effect on birth weight, weaning weight and age at puberty with late rainy season having the highest birth weight and weaning weight. The result showed that birth weight and weaning weight had a significant (P<0.05) influence on age and weight at puberty while weaning weight only significantly influenced weight at puberty. It can be concluded that season of birth significantly influenced birth weight, weaning weight and age at puberty while birth weight and weaning weight showed significant effect on age and weight at puberty

Evaluating the Performance of Yankasa Rams Fed Acacia Sayel Del (Chenchilo) Leaf Meal as a replacement for Cotton Seed Cake

A study was conducted to evaluate the nutritive value of Acacia sayel Del. (Chenchilo) pods as replacement for Cotton Seed Cake (CSC) in diets of Yankasa rams. Twenty Yankasa rams of average weight 15.4 ± 0.15 kg were used in a feeding trial which lasted 120 days. The rams were randomly allotted to five treatment groups: 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 % inclusion levels of A. sayel pods in a complete randomized design experiment. The rams were fed concentrate at the rate of 2.5% body weight/head/dat. A basal diet of maize stover was offered ad libitum. Rumen fluid and blood samples were collected at the beginning, middle and end of the feeding experiments to determine rumen and hematological parameters. A digestibility trial was conducted at the end of the feeding trial. The results of the study show that A. sayel pods inclusion levels had significant (P≤ 0.05) effect on all the performance characteristics except feed intake. The best results were obtained at 75% level of inclusion (feed conversion ratio of 1.35, weight gain 622.5g and final body weight (21.625kg). Inclusion levels of A. sayel pods had significant (P≤0.05) effect on nutrient digestibility, but had no significant (P≥0.05) effect on nitrogen balance. The inclusion of A. Sayel had no significant effect (P≥ 0.05) on Packed Cell Volume (PCV), heamoglobin, rumen ammonia nitrogen and rumen pH. From the result of this study it was concluded that A. sayel pods can be included in the diet of Yankasa rams up to 75% to replace Cotton Seed Cake. This inclusion level resulted in improved performance in rams in terms of feed efficiency, nutrient digestibility and nitrogen retention.Keywords: Acacia sayel, Yankasa sheep, Nutrient utilizatio

Nutrient Intake and Digestibility of Red Sokoto Bucks Fed Varying Levels of Gmelina (Gmelina arborea) Leaf Meal.

An experiment was conducted to evaluate dry matter intake, total tract digestibility and nitrogen balance by red Sokoto bucks fed varying levels of Gmelina arborea leaf meal (GLM). Diet 1 devoid of GLM served as the control. Diets 2, 3 and 4 had GLM supplemented at 10, 20, 30% levels, respectively. A 4X4 Latin square design arrangement was employed for the study that lasted for 21 days. Animals fed 10 and 20% Gmelina arborea diets had statistically (P>0.05) similar dry matter intake (442.20 and 427.80g/day, respectively) and were significantly higher (P>0.05) than values obtained for animals fed 30% level of GLM inclusion. Organic matter intake (OMI) were statistically similar and higher (P<0.05) at 0 and 10% inclusion levels of GLM, while 20 and 30% inclusion level had the lowest (389.71 and 388.52g/d). Crude protein intake (CPI) at 10 and 20% GLM inclusion levels were similar and significantly (P<0.05) higher, followed by control and the least was observed in 30% GLM inclusion level. Dry matter digestibility (DMD) was significantly (P<0.05) different across the dietary treatments, with 10% inclusion level being higher, followed by 20, and 30%. retention differ (P<0.05) significantly, at 10% GLM inclusion had (22.93 g/day), followed by the control (18.88g/day), which significantly declined with increasing level of GLM (18.74, 12.12 g/day) at 20 and 30 % inclusion level, respectively. observed was significantly (P<0.05) different, diet with 10% GLM had high observed (39.97g/day) and decreasing at 20 and 30% GLM (36.86 and 37.96g/day). retention as percent of intake followed similar pattern. From the result of this study, it can be concluded that inclusion of GLM at 10% had no adverse effect on intake and nutrient digestibility in goatsKeywords: Buck, digestibility, Gmelina arborea, maize cobs, red Sokoto buck

Effect of Cooking Duration on Chemical Composition and Degradation Characteristics of Rattle Box (Crotalaria retusa) Seed using In Sacco Technique

Three ruminally fistulated Yankasa rams were used to study the effect of cooking duration on chemical composition and degradation characteristics of rattle box (Crotalaria retusa) seeds using the in sacco degradability method. Crotalaria retusa seeds were subjected to cooking time of 0, 15, 30, and 45 minutes, respectively. Four concentrate diets containing Crotalaria retusa seed meal cooked at 0, 15, 30 and 45 minutes were used for this study at incubation periods 3, 6, 12, 24, 36, and 48 hours. The proximate composition showed that duration of cooking had effect on most of the parameters. The CP contents were 20.60, 21.57, 23.97 and 21.97% for 0, 15, 30, and 45 minutes cooking duration, respectively. All the antinutritional factors analysed showed a decrease with increases in cooking time. Phytate showed a decrease with increase in cooking time from 7.31 to 3.22 at 0 to 45 minutes cooking duration, respectively. The result showed a similar pattern for rate of degradation at 6, 12, 24, 36 and 48 hours incubation time with 45 minutes cooking duration significantly (P<0.05) recorded the highest values of 47.00, 54.67, 73.00, 87.00, 90.67 and 93.00 percent disappearance of the experimental feed, respectively. The highest degradability (a+b) was in 0 minutes cooking duration, which was significantly (P<0.05) higher than in 15 and 30 minutes cooking. The rate of degradation constant (c) was significantly (P<0.05) lower in 0, 15 and 30 minutes cooking duration as compared to 45 minutes cooking duration. Effective dry matter degradation significantly (P<0.05) decreased with cooking duration in out flow rate (k). It can be concluded from this study that, cooking duration affects degradation characteristics of C. retusa seeds.Keywords: Crotalaria retusa seed, cooking duration, in sacco, rumen degradatio