SME Participation in ASEAN and East Asian Integration: The Case of Cambodia

Covering 201 firms, this study employs a questionnaire survey to explore the impact of trade policy on small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Cambodia. The results show that more than half of the surveyed firms were aware of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) and larger firms tend to use FTAs more frequently than SMEs. The key reasons for not using FTAs were a lack of knowledge and not knowing how to use the forms. The strong import linkages with ASEAN and East Asia (as compared to export linkages) suggest that Cambodian firms take advantage of sourcing cheaper intermediate inputs from ASEAN and East Asian economies and then export the final products to the U.S. and EU markets through generalized system of preferences (GSP) and Everything But Arms (EBA) arrangements. The surveyed firms hold the perception that the AEC has or would decrease their domestic and export sales as well as their profitability, and face more competition in local and foreign markets. On the other hand, they think the AEC has or would decrease import costs and enhance accessibility to intermediate inputs. The impacts are believed to occur through the reduction of import and export tariffs/ duties, increase in custom procedures, standards and regulations, recognition of professional qualifications, improved investment processes, and better connectivity. The empirical results indicate that compared to non-users, the active FTA users appear to be larger, have higher labour productivity, and have experience with multiple export markets. They are also members of business associations, and have higher skill intensity and technological capability. Firm size, higher labour productivity, access to business networks, active use of information and communications technology (ICT), having more experiences with multiple export markets, skilled human capital and technological capability are important factors for firms to use multiple FTAs and participate in regional integration.Shandre M. Thangavelu, Sothea Oum and Samsen Nea

HIV treatment cascade among female entertainment and sex workers in Cambodia: Impact of amphetamine use and an HIV prevention program

Background: HIV prevalence remains high in Cambodia among female entertainment and sex workers (FESW), and amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) use significantly increases risk of infection. A successful continuum of care (CoC) is key to effective clinical care and prevention. This study aimed to describe the HIV CoC in HIV-positive FESW. We examined CoC outcomes among HIV-positive FESW participating in the Cambodia Integrated HIV and Drug Prevention Implementation (CIPI) study, being implemented in ten provinces. CIPI is a trial aimed at reducing ATS use concomitant with the SMARTgirl HIV prevention program. Methods: From 2013 to 2016, 1198 FESW ≥ 18 years old who reported multiple sex partners and/or transactional sex were recruited. We identified 88 HIV-positive women at baseline. We described linkage to care as 12-month retention and viral suppression (<1000 copies/mL). Logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine correlates of retention in care at 12 months, and viral suppression. Results: Median age of the 88 HIV-positive women was 32 years [interquartile range (IQR) 28, 35]; 50% were working in entertainment venues and 50% as freelance sex workers; 70% reported SMARTgirl membership. In the past 3 months, women reported a median of 15 sex partners, 38% reported unprotected sex, and 55% reported using ATS. Overall, 88% were receiving HIV care, 83% were on antiretroviral therapy, 39% were retained in care at 12 months, and 23% were virally suppressed. SMARTgirl membership was independently associated with fourfold greater odds of 12-month retention in care (AOR = 4.16, 95% CI 1.38, 12.56). Those at high risk for an ATS use disorder had 91% lower odds of 12-month retention in care (AOR = 0.09, 95% CI 0.01, 0.72). Viral suppression was independently associated with SMARTgirl membership, older age, reporting of STI symptoms, worse symptoms of psychological distress, and greater numbers of sex partners. Conclusions: This is the first study to characterize the HIV CoC in Cambodian FESW. While most women were successfully linked to HIV care, retention and viral suppression were low. Tailored programs like SMARTgirl, targeting the broader population of HIV-positive FESW as well as interventions to reduce ATS use could optimize the clinical and population health benefits of HIV treatment. Trial registration This work reports data collected as part of a trial: NCT01835574. This work does not present trial results

Cluster randomized stepped-wedge trial of a multi-level HIV prevention intervention to decrease amphetamine-type stimulants and sexual risk in Cambodian female entertainment and sex workers

Background: HIV prevention for female entertainment and sex workers (FESW) may be optimized by addressing individual and structural risks. We examined the impact of a sequentially delivered intervention to decrease sexual risk, amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) use, and improve economic well-being in Cambodian FESW. Methods: A cluster randomized stepped-wedge trial was conducted in 10 Cambodian provinces to test multi-level intervention in high risk FESW. After baseline screening in 1198 women, those screening positive for ATS use disorder were allocated to a 12-week conditional cash transfer intervention followed by a 4-week cognitive-behavioural aftercare group (CCT + AC). At six months, ATS abstinent participants were offered a microenterprise (ME) opportunity. Co-primary outcomes assessed in 600 FESW at each 6-, 12- and 18-month follow-up assessments, included: 1) number of sexual partners (past three months); and 2) ATS urine toxicology positive (Tox+) results. Secondary outcomes included indicators of economic well-being. Results: Relative to baseline, FESW reported fewer sexual partners at all follow-up assessments with a significant 50% decrease at 12-months (Adjusted Rate Ratio [ARR] = 0.50; 95%CI: 0.25, 0.95). Women had 60% lower odds of being ATS Tox+ (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 0.40; 95%CI: 0.25, 0.65) at 6-months, and continued but non-significant reductions at 12- and 18-months. Improvements in economic well-being indicators were observed at 12- and 18-months. Conclusions: Findings support the robust effectiveness of the sequentially delivered CCT + AC and ME interventions for boosting HIV prevention for Cambodian FESW. Further research is needed to inform the scale up and improve durability of this comprehensive approach with FESW in Southeast Asia

Syndemic Psychosocial Health Conditions Associated with Recent Client-Perpetrated Violence Against Female Entertainment and Sex Workers in Cambodia

Female entertainment and sex workers (FESW) are vulnerable to violence, which impedes safer sex behaviors and increases risk of HIV. FESW are also disproportionately affected by co-occurring psychosocial health conditions, including substance use, depression, and economic insecurity, which increased risk of exposure to violence. We used a syndemic framework to examine the effects of co-occurring psychosocial conditions on the risk of client-perpetrated physical and sexual violence against FESW. Data were collected among 1198 Cambodian FESW on recent client–perpetrated physical and sexual violence, and psychosocial conditions (psychological distress, alcohol consumption, amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) use, debts, housing, and food insecurity). Bivariate and multivariate logistic regressions were conducted. Prevalence of physical and sexual violence from clients was 4.8% and 6.9%, respectively. Client-perpetrated physical violence was associated with housing insecurity, ATS use, and psychological distress. All psychosocial conditions, except ATS, were associated with exposure to sexual violence. In multivariable models, odds of client-perpetrated physical violence were twice higher among women with ≥ 4 compared to ≤ 3 psychosocial conditions. Risk of sexual violence increased with the number of psychosocial conditions. Compared to those with ≤ 1 condition, FESW with two psychosocial conditions had twice the odds (AOR = 2.08; 95% CI 1.00–4.31) and women with 5–6 psychosocial conditions had eightfold higher odds (AOR = 8.10; 95% CI 3.4–19.31) of sexual violence from clients. Our findings support a syndemic model of co-occurring psychosocial conditions among FESW that are associated with increased risk of violence. Violence prevention interventions targeting FESW should adopt comprehensive approaches that address co-occurring psychosocial conditions

Joint effects of alcohol and stimulant use disorders on self-reported sexually transmitted infections in a prospective study of Cambodian female entertainment and sex workers

Female entertainment and sex workers (FESW) have high rates of alcohol and amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) use, increasing risk for HIV/sexually transmitted infections (STI), and other negative outcomes. A prospective cohort of 1,198 FESW in a HIV/ATS use prevention intervention in Cambodia was assessed for alcohol and stimulant use disorders (AUD and SUD) using the Alcohol and Substance Use Involvement (ASSIST) scale. STI history was measured by self-report at baseline and at quarterly follow-up visits. Participants were asked if they had been diagnosed with an STI by a medical provider in the past 3 months. Marginal structural models were used to estimate joint effects of AUD and SUD on recent STI. At baseline, one-in-four screened AUD positive and 7% screened positive for SUD. At 18-months, 26% reported ≥1 recent STI. Accounting for time-varying and other known confounders, the adjusted odds ratio (AOR) for recent STI associated with AUD alone and SUD alone were 2.8 (95% CI:1.5–5.1) and 3.5 (95% CI:1.1–11.3), respectively. The AOR for joint effects of AUD and SUD was 5.7 (95% CI:2.2–15.2). AUD and SUD are independently and jointly associated with greater odds of STI among Cambodian FESW. Further research is critical for understanding how AUD and SUD potentiate biological and behavioural pathways that influence STI acquisition and to inform HIV risk-reduction interventions in FESW